"Baring the body in the bedroom": body image, sexual self-schemas, and sexual functioning among college women and men.

"Baring the body in the bedroom": body image, sexual self-schemas, and sexual functioning among college women and men. Abstract A growing literature points to the role of body-image attitudes inhuman sexual functioning. Specifically, body dissatisfaction andexcessive psychological investment in one's physical appearance maylead to physical self-consciousness and body exposure avoidance duringsexual relations sexual relationspl.n.1. Sexual intercourse.2. Sexual activity between individuals. , which in turn may impair sexual desire, enjoyment, andperformance. The present research with 145 college women and 118 collegemen evaluated a contextual body-image measure, the Body Exposure duringSexual Activities Questionnaire (BESAQ), which assesses anxious/avoidantbody focus during sex. Findings supported the BESAQ's reliabilityand validity. Associat ions with sexual functioning were stronger for theBESAQ than for trait body-image measures. For both sexes, better sexualfunctioning was related to less anxious/avoidant body focus and strongersexual self-schemas. Physical self-consciousness during sexual relationsfocused substantially on weight and gender-relevant attributes. Clinicaland research implications of the findings are considered. Introduction Body image refers to human experiences of embodiment and is amulti-faceted construct incorporating persons' perceptions andattitudes about their own body, especially their physical appearance(Cash & Pruzinsky, 2002). Body-image attitudes include one'sappearance-related cognitions (or schemas), emotions, and behaviors(Cash, 2002b). Most body-image research has focused on eatingdisturbances among women (Cash & Pruzinsky, 2002; Thompson,Heinberg, Altabe, & Tantleff-Dunn, 1999). Clearly, body image hasimplications for other facets of psychosocial psychosocial/psy¡¤ cho¡¤so¡¤cial/ (si?ko-so¡äshul) pertaining to or involving both psychic and social aspects. psy¡¤cho¡¤so¡¤cialadj.Involving aspects of both social and psychological behavior. functioning in both sexes(Cash & Fleming, 2002; Cash & Pruzinsky, 2002). Body-imageevaluations can influence one's interest in and experiences duringsexual activities. Masters and Johnson's (1970) classic perspectiveon "spectatoring" and Barlow's (1986) emphasis on anxiousself-focus have concentrated more on self-scrutiny of sexual performancethan on concerns about bodily appearance. However, scientists haverecently found that body dissatisfaction may inhibit sexual behavior sexual behaviorA person's sexual practices–ie, whether he/she engages in heterosexual or homosexual activity. See Sex life, Sexual life. andinterfere with the quality of sexual experiences (Wiederman, 2002). Much research on body image and sexual functioning assesses bodyimage as a global trait dimension--especially o verallsatisfaction-dissatisfaction with one's appearance. A promisingcomplementary approach examines body-image experiences in particularsituational contexts (Cash, 2002a). Reflecting the need for anassessment of body image within sexual contexts, Hangen and Cash (1991)developed the Body Exposure during Sexual Activities Questionnaire(BESAQ) to measure anxious attentional focus on and avoidance of bodyexposure during sexual relations. Their preliminary evidence and thatfrom another study (Faith & Schare, 1993) offered initial support ofthe BESAQ's reliability and its convergent and discriminantvalidity Discriminant validity describes the degree to which the operationalization is not similar to (diverges from) other operationalizations that it theoretically should not be similar to. . The central purpose of the present research was to investigatefurther the validity of this 28-item measure with both male and femalecollege students. We examined the BESAQ's relationship to severaldispositional or trait body-image measures--global body satisfaction,overweight preoccupation, and psychological investment in one's ownappearance. Because obesity is associated with a poorer body image (Cash& Roy, 1999; Schwartz & Brownell, 2004), we also examined therelationship of the BESAQ to body mass index. Recent research attests tothe utility of the sexual self-schema construct in understanding thequantity and quality of sexual experiences (Andersen & Cyranowski,1994; Andersen, Cyranowski, & Espindle, 1999). Sexual self-schemasare defined as "cognitive generalizations about sexual aspects ofoneself that are derived from past experience, manifest in currentexperience, influential in the processing of sexually relevant socialinformation, and guide sexual behavior" (Andersen & Cyranowski,1994, p. 1079). We measured this construct in the current study toascertain its relationship to the BESAQ. Perhaps most importantly Adv. 1. most importantly - above and beyond all other consideration; "above all, you must be independent"above all, most especially , wesought to discern how the BESAQ and other study variables predictedparticipants' sexual functioning. Accordingly, the research hadeight specific objectives or hypotheses: 1. The BESAQ was expected to be associated with poorer trait bodysatisfaction, more overweight preoccupation, and more dysfunctionalappearance investment. 2. We hypothesized a modest positive correlation Noun 1. positive correlation - a correlation in which large values of one variable are associated with large values of the other and small with small; the correlation coefficient is between 0 and +1direct correlation of the BESAQ andbody mass, with heavier persons reporting more anxious self-focus andexposure avoidance during sexual relations. 3. Weaker sexual self-schemas were expected to be associated withgreater selfconsciousness and exposure avoidance during sex. 4. BESAQ scores were expect ed to be predictable from both traitbody-image measures and sexual self-schemas. 5. We hypothesized that the BESAQ would predict aspects of sexualfunctioning--experiences of desire, arousal, orgasm orgasm/or¡¤gasm/ (or¡ägazm) the apex and culmination of sexual excitement.orgas¡ämic or¡¤gasmn. , and overall sexualsatisfaction. 6. We expected that the context-specific BESAQ's predictiveefficacy of sexual functioning would exceed that found for traitbody-image variables. 7. A multivariate analysis examined whether the BESAQ, along withother variables in the study, uniquely explained variance Explained variance is part of the variance of any residual that can be attributed to a specific condition (cause). The other part of variance is unexplained variance. The higher the explained variance relative to the total variance, the stronger the statistical measure used. in sexualfunctioning. 8. The literature on body image and sexuality lacks specificityregarding the physical self- foci of body image in this context.Therefore, a final, exploratory objective of this study was to providedescriptive information to answer the questions: What physicalcharacteristics do men and women feel self-conscious about during sexualrelations, and how do the sexes differ? Method Participants Sexually active college students at Old Dominion University “ODU” redirects here. For other uses, see ODU (disambiguation).The university was recently named one of the best colleges in the Southeast by The Princeton Review. , 145women and 118 men, participated voluntarily for extra credit inpsychology classes. Their median age was 21 years (range = 18 to 50).They were exclusively or predominantly heterosexual; 59% were White and26% African American African AmericanMulticulture A person having origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa.See Race. ; 88% were unmarried; and 60% had only one sexualpartner in the past year. They had been sexually active for a medi an of5 years and were in their current relationship for 1.8 years. Body massindex (BMI BMIbody mass index. BMIabbr.body mass indexBody mass index (BMI)A measurement that has replaced weight as the preferred determinant of obesity. = kg/m2) of men and women averaged 25.1 (SD = 4.2) and 24.0(SD = 5.6), respectively. Measures and Procedure In a research laboratory, following informed consent, participantsindividually and anonymously completed a demographic information formand these assessments: Body Exposure during Sexual Activities Questionnaire (BESAQ; Cash,2004a; Hangen & Cash, 1991): The BESAQ is a 28-item measure ofanxious attentional focus on and avoidance of body exposure during sex.Exemplary items are: "I don't like my partner to see mecompletely naked during sexual activity." "During sexualactivity I try to hide certain areas of my body." "I amself-conscious about my body during sexual activity." Respondentsrate each item on a 5-point frequency scale (0 = "Never " to 4= "Almost Always"). Higher scores reflect more self-consciousfocus and avoidance. In the present study, the BESAQ's internalconsistency In statistics and research, internal consistency is a measure based on the correlations between different items on the same test (or the same subscale on a larger test). It measures whether several items that propose to measure the same general construct produce similar scores. (Cronbach's alpha Cronbach's (alpha) has an important use as a measure of the reliability of a psychometric instrument. It was first named as alpha by Cronbach (1951), as he had intended to continue with further instruments. ) was .95 for men and .96 for women. Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire (MBSRQ MBSRQ Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire ; Brown,Cash, & Mikulka, 1990; Cash, 2004a): Two subscales of thewell-validated MBSRQ were used. Higher scores on the 9-item Body AreasSatisfaction Scale (BASS) indicate greater satisfa ction, on average,with specific physical areas or attributes (e.g., face, weight, lowertorso, height, etc.) on a 5-point response scale. The 4-item OverweightPreoccupation Scale (OPS Ops(ŏps), in Roman religion, goddess of harvests. She was the wife of Saturn, by whom she bore Jupiter and Juno. At her festivals, the Opiconsivia and the Opalia, held in August and December, respectively, she was worshiped as a goddess of sowing ) consists of 5-point ratings of fat anxiety,weight vigilance, eating restraint, and dieting, with higher scoresindicating greater preoccupation. In this sample, internal consistenciesof the BASS and OPS, respectively, were .80 and .74 among men and .82and .80 among women. Appearance Schemas Inventory (ASI ASI,n See Anxiety Sensitivity Index. ; Cash & Labarge, 1996): Thisis a 14-item assessment of dysfunctional investment in one'sappearance. Using a 5-point disagreeagree response format, exemplaryitems include: "I should do whatever I can to a lways look mybest." "My appearance is responsible for much of what hashappened to me in my life." Higher scores reflect morepsychological investment in one's appearance. The ASI'sinternal consistency in this study was .84 for men and .85 for women. Sexual Self-Schema Scale (SSSS SSSSStaphylococcus scalded skin syndrome, see there ; Andersen & Cyranowski, 1994;Andersen et al., 1999): The SSSS is an adjectival ad¡¤jec¡¤ti¡¤val?adj.Of, relating to, or functioning as an adjective.adjec¡¤ti inventory thatmeasures one's self-concept as a "sexual person,"consisting of a 50-item form for women and a 45-item form for men. Itemsdo not explicitly refer to sexuality. Each adjective is rated from 0("not at all descriptive") to 6 ("verydescriptive"). The SSSS is composed of three factor dimensions foreach sex. Among women, this self-view is one of passionate-romantic,open-direct, and (not) embarrassed-conservative. Among men, this is aself-view of passionate-loving, powerful-aggressi ve, and open-minded orliberal. In each case, higher scores indicate greater sexualself-schematicity. In this sample, the internal consistency of the SSSSwas .79 for men and .85 for women. Changes in Sexual Functioning Questionnaire (CSFQ CSFQ Core-Stateless Fair Queueing ; Clayton,McGarvey, & Clavet, 1996, 1997): The CSFQ is a validated 14-itemself-report measure of sexual functioning vis-a-vis experiences ofpleasure, desire, arousal, and orgasm. There are different forms for menand women that reflect some variation in wording of items, with 5-pointresponse options for each item. The CSFQ has subscales for sexualpleasure (1 item), desire/frequency (2 items), desire/interest (3items), arousal (3 items), and orgasm (3 items). In addition, a 14-itemtotal score may be calculated. Higher scores are indicative of morefavorable sexual functioning. In this study, the internal consistency ofthe CSFQ total score was .77 for men and .80 for women. Physical Self-Consciousness duri ng Sex Questionnaire (PSCSQ):Developed for this study, the inventory asks participants how often andhow intensely they experience selfconsciousness about 14 bodyareas/attributes during sexual relations (e.g., chest/breasts, hips,buttocks buttocks/but¡¤tocks/ (but¡äoks) the two fleshy prominences formed by the gluteal muscles on the lower part of the back. , thighs, scalp hair, etc.). Ratings were made on 5-point (0 to4) scales for each dimension and characteristic. A frequency X intensitycross-product gauged respondents' extent of self-consciousnessabout each attribute. Results Relationships of Trait Body Image and Body Mass with the BESAQ In relation to the first objective of the study, Pearsoncorrelations evaluated the BESAQ's associations with traitbody-image satisfaction, overweight preoccupation, and appearanceinvestment. As hypothesized, Table 1 confirms moderate relationships forboth sexes. Greater anxious self-focus and exposure avoidance during sexwas associated with less overall body satisfaction, more overweightpreoccupation, and more dysfunctional investment in one's physicalappearance. The study's second objective entailed an examination of therelationship of the BESAQ and body mass. As hypothesized, significantmodest relationships indicated that heavier persons reported somewhatmore anxious/avoidant body focus during sex. Relationships of Sexual Self-Schemas with the BESAQ The study's third objective was to examine the relationshipsof sexual self-schemas with BESAQ scores. Table 1 shows that women, butnot men, with a more sexual self-view reported less anxious/avoidantbody focus during sex. Analyses of SSSS factor scales revealed that allthree schema subscales were significantly (p < .01) related towomen's BESAQ scores (i.e., romantic-passionate, r = -.24;open-direct, r = -.23; and embarrassedconservative, r = .26). For men,only a powerful-aggressive self-view was significantly negativelycorrelated with the BESAQ (r = -.2 3, p < .05); passionate-loving andopenminded liberal self-views were unrelated to self-consciousness andexposure avoidance during sex. Multivariate Prediction of BESAQ Scores Regarding the study's fourth objective, standard multiplelinear regressions examined the prediction of BESAQ scores from thetrait body-image dimensions and sexual selfschemas. For men, each of thethree trait body-image variables significantly predicted BESAQ scores([R.sup.2] = .44, p < .001)--body dissatisfaction ([beta] = -.42, p< .001), appearance investment ([beta] = .28, p < .001), andoverweight preoccupation ([beta] = .19, p < .02). For women, bodydissatisfaction ([beta] = -.41, p < .001) and appearance investment([beta] = .38, p < .001) predicted the BESAQ ([R.sup.2] = .44, p <.001). Sexual self-schemas did not account for variance unexplained bythese trait body-image measures. Correlates and Prediction of Sexual Functioning Sexual functioning was measured by the CSFQ. Consistent withhypotheses from the study's fifth objective, Table 1 shows that forboth sexes, persons experiencing more anxious/avoidant body focus duringsex had significantly poorer sexual functioning in their currentrelationship. This was true for reported sexual pleasure, frequency ofsexual desire, and arousal and orgasmic experiences. It is noteworthythat correlations were generally higher for women than men. Table 2 summarizes the relationships of study variables with thecomposite CSFQ index of sexual functioning. As hypothesized in thestudy's sixth objective, for both sexes, the context-specific BESAQcorrelated with sexual functioning more strongly than did the traitbody-image measures. Body mass was unrelated to sexual functioning.Sexual selfschemas were significantly positively associated with sexualfunctioning for both women and men. Pertinent to the seventh research objective, multiple regressionanalyses examined the prediction of sexual functioning from variable sthat were significantly correlated with the CSFQ (from Table 2). Forwomen and men alike, two predictors accounted for significant variancein sexual functioning--sexual self-schemas and the BESAQ ([R.sup.2] =.20 for women and .16 for men, p < .001). More favorable functioningwas related to less anxious/avoidant body focus ([beta] = -.21 for men,p < .02, and -.25 for women, p < .002) and a more sexuallyschematic self-view ([beta] = .32 and .31, respectively, p < .001).Among women, this self-view reflected the composite of all threedimensions; for men, it reflected the powerful-aggressive sexualself-view. During Sex, Who are Physically Self-Conscious about What? In the study's final objective, we examined the physical fociof self-consciousness during sexual activities, using the PSCSQ. Table 3summarizes these data. Higher values reflect more frequent and intenseself-consciousness about a specific physical characteristic. It isempirically noteworthy that the mean composite PSCSQ scores weresignificantly correlated with the BESAQ (r = .61 for women and r = .69for men, p < .001). Among women, the top five foci were: (1) weightin general, (2) thighs, (3) waist, (4) buttocks, and (5) hips. Amongmen, these foci were: (1) weight in general, (2) muscularity, (3) waist,(4) chest, and (5) genitals gen¡¤i¡¤talspl.n.Genitalia. . As Table 3 shows, F tests indicated that,compared to women, men reported significantly more self-consciousnessduring sex about their scalp hair, lower arms/hands, and upperarms/shoulders. Women were more self-conscious than men about theirweight in general, thighs, hips, and buttocks. Discussion A growing literature highlights the importance of the body-imageconstruct to various aspects of sexual functioning (Wiederman, 2002).The principal purpose of this investigation was to evaluate further thereliability and validity of a measure of body-image experiencesoccurring specifically in sexual contexts. This 28-item Bo dy Exposureduring Sexual Activities Questionnaire assesses anxious self-focus onand avoidance of exposing aspects of one's physical appearance insexual contexts. The ideas and observations of Masters and Johnson Masters and Johnson,pioneering research team in the field of human sexuality, consisting of the gynecologistWilliam Howell Masters, 1915–2001, b. Cleveland, and the psychologistVirginia Eshelman Johnson, 1925–, b. (1970) and Barlow (1986) about the role of spectatoring or cognitiveinterference in sexual dysfunction sexual dysfunctionInability to experience arousal or achieve sexual satisfaction under ordinary circumstances, as a result of psychological or physiological problems. have focused more onperformance-based distraction. However, some evidence suggests that thedistinction between performance-oriented and appearance-focusedattention may be less clear for women (Dove & Wiederman, 2000). The present research confirms and extends preliminary rese archevidence of the reliability and validity of the BESAQ (Faith &Schare, 1993; Hangen & Cash, 1991). In our sample of sexuallyactive, heterosexual college women and men, we found that the highlyinternally consistent BESAQ converged appropriately (i.e., moderately)with three trait measures of body image for both sexes. Bivariate bi¡¤var¡¤i¡¤ate?adj.Mathematics Having two variables: bivariate binomial distribution.Adj. 1. correlations indicated that more anxious/avoidant body focus wasassociated with more trait body dissatisfaction, overweightpreoccupation, and dysfunctional investment in one's appearance. Aheavier body mass was also modestly related to more anxious/avoidantbody focus during sex, consistent with evidence of a more negative bodyimage among overweight or obese persons (Cash & Roy, 1999; Schwartz& Brownell, 2004). However, the findings indicated that suchself-conscious and avoidant experiences were more clearly related tobeing weight-preoccupied than to actual weight. For men, each of the three body-image traits explainedincrementally unique variance in their BESAQ scores. For women,anxious/avoidant self-focus on appearance was also predictable from bodydissatisfaction and appearance investment, which accounted for theiroverweight preoccupation. Thus, such self-conscious body-imageexperiences during sex reflect both discontent with one's body ingeneral and greater psychological investment in one's looks as asource of self-evaluation. The latter dimension increases the likelihoodof attending to and processing appearance-related information inspecific situational contexts (Cash, 2002b; Cash, Fleming, Alindogan,Steadman, & Whitehead, 2002; Cash, Melnyk, & Hrabosky, 2004;Labarge, Cash, & Brown, 1998; Williamson, Stewart, White, &York-Crowe, 2002). Results confirmed our hypothesis that higher BESAQ scores would beassociated with poorer levels of sexual functioning. Both women and menwith more anxious/av oidant appearance self-focus during sex indicatedless positive experiences vis-a-vis most aspects of their current sexualfunctioning. They reported less enjoyment of their sex life, lessfrequent desire for sex, as well as less consistency and quality intheir experiences of sexual arousal sexual arousalHorny/horniness, randy/randiness Physiology A state of sexual 'yellow alert' which has a mental component–↑ cortical responsiveness to sensory stimulation, and physical component–↑ penile sensitivity, neural response to stimuli, and orgasm. The only aspect ofsexual functioning that was unrelated to the BESAQ pertained to sexualdesire as reflected by fantasized rather than actual experience. Thesefindings collectively support the validity of the BESAQ. The fact thatonly minimal or nonsignificant non¡¤sig¡¤nif¡¤i¡¤cant?adj.1. Not significant.2. Having, producing, or being a value obtained from a statistical test that lies within the limits for being of ran dom occurrence. associations were observed between traitbody-image measures and sexual functioning affirms the importance ofcontextual body-image assessment. Thus, the BESAQ is a much betterpredictor of sexual functioning than are measures of body image asgeneral trait dispositions. What matters most are the bodyimageexperiences in the experiential sexual context. With respect to sexual self-schemas, our results expand those fromWiederman and Hurst (1997), who found that women with more positivesexual self-schemas rated themselves as more physically attractive andreported less social avoidance due to body-image anxiety. We also foundthat sexually self-schematic women (Andersen & Cyranowski, 1994),who viewed themselves as romantic-passionate, open-direct, and notembarrassedconservative persons, reported less anxiousself-consciousness and body-exposure avoidance during sex. Perhaps theirconsistent self-identity as a "sexual person" leads them tofocus more on the self-cong ruent experience of sexual behaviors andsensate sen¡¤sateor sen¡¤sat¡¤edadj.1. Perceived by a sense or the senses.2. Having physical sensation. pleasures than on a partner's potential evaluations oftheir appearance. Among men, one facet of sexual self-schemas (Andersenet al., 1999) was associated with BESAQ scores. Specifically, men with apowerful-aggressive self-view (but not necessarily passionateloving oropen-minded liberal self-views) reported less anxious/avoidant physicalselffocus during sex. Perhaps this identity entails a more active orassertive behavioral orientation to sex rather than a reflective orrelational orientation. Men lacking this selfview are somewhat moreself-conscious about their body during sex. Notwithstanding these modestassociations between the BESAQ and sexual self-schemas, regressionanalyses confirmed that both variables independently contributed to theprediction of sexual functioning for women and men. Although our findings confirm the salienc e sa¡¤li¡¤ence? also sa¡¤li¡¤en¡¤cyn. pl. sa¡¤li¡¤en¡¤ces also sa¡¤li¡¤en¡¤cies1. The quality or condition of being salient.2. A pronounced feature or part; a highlight.Noun 1. of body-imageexperiences in sexual relations, they offer no insight into the specificfoci of concerns for women and men. An assessment of the frequency andintensity of self-consciousness about various physical characteristicswas elucidating. Women's most self-conscious foci were their weightand gender-relevant shape attributes--weight in general, thighs, waist,buttocks, and hips. Men's foci were their weight in general,muscularity, waist, chest, and genitals. Relative to women, men weremore self-conscious about their scalp hair, lower arms/hands, and upperarms/shoulders, whereas women were more self-conscious about weight,thighs, hips, and buttocks. In sum, both women and men report physicalself-consciousness during sex, but they focus on different,gender-relevant physical characteristics. Directio ns for future research are myriad. As body-imageresearchers often exclusively study women (Cash, 2004b), our inclusionof men in the study was an important direction. Recent research pointsto body-image issues that many boys and men face, particularly concernsabout conforming to societal ideals of muscularity (Cohane & Pope,2001; Corson & Andersen, 2002; Olivardia, 2002). Our findings derivefrom a sample of individuals in their current sexual relationship for anaverage of nearly 2 years, and 60% of our sample had only one sexualpartner in the past year. As Wiederman (2002) notes, research is lackingon the role of body-image experiences in persons' first sexualencounter with a new partner. In one study of such experiences, Yamamiyaand Cash (2002) found that women with higher BESAQ scores reported moreambivalence/acquiescence in their decision to have sex with the partner,greater emotional detachment during sex, and more subsequent regret andconcerns about acceptance. F urther research on body image in sexualcontexts should expand the diversity of samples to study older adults,gay and lesbian individuals, persons with physical disabilities, andclinical populations (e.g., those with sexual dysfunctions). Body-image experiences are integral to the quality of life of womenand men, including the quality of sexual life (Cash & Fleming, 2002;Cash, Jakatdar, & Williams, in press). An anxious, self-consciousfocus on one's appearance and avoidance of bodily exposure duringsex may undermine one's sexual functioning. These and other data(Wiederman, 2002) suggest the value of incorporating body-imageinterventions into the treatment of sexual dysfunctions. For example,cognitive-behavioral body-image therapy (Cash, 1997; Cash &Hrabosky, 2004; Cash & Strachan, 2002) is an efficacious ef¡¤fi¡¤ca¡¤cious?adj.Producing or capable of producing a desired effect. See Synonyms at effective.[From Latin effic treatmentof bodyimage difficulties and disorders, with outcomes empirically shownto ameliorate a¡¤mel¡¤io¡¤rate?tr. & intr.v. a¡¤me¡¤lio¡¤rat¡¤ed, a¡¤me¡¤lio¡¤rat¡¤ing, a¡¤me¡¤lio¡¤ratesTo make or become better; improve. See Synonyms at improve.[Alteration of meliorate. physical self-consciousness during sex (Grant & Cash,1995). References Andersen, B.L., & Cyranowski, J.M. (1994). Women's sexualself-schema. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology The Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (often referred to as JPSP) is a monthly psychology journal of the American Psychological Association. It is considered one of the top journals in the fields of social and personality psychology. , 67,1079-1100. Andersen, B.L., Cyranowski, J.M., & Espindle, D. (1999).Men's sexual self-schema. Journal of Personality and SocialPsychology, 76, 645-661. Barlow, D.H. (1986). Causes of sexual dysfunction: The role ofanxiety and cognitive interference. Journal of Consulting and ClinicalPsychology The Jou rnal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology (JCCP) is a bimonthly psychology journal of the American Psychological Association. Its focus is on treatment and prevention in all areas of clinical and clinical-health psychology and especially on topics that appeal to a broad , 54, 140-148. Brown, T.A., Cash, T.F., & Mikulka, P.J. (1990). Attitudinalbody-image assessment: Factor analysis of the Body-Self RelationsQuestionnaire. Journal of Personality Assessment, 55, 135-144. Cash, T.F. (1997). The body image workbook work¡¤book?n.1. A booklet containing problems and exercises that a student may work directly on the pages.2. A manual containing operating instructions, as for an appliance or machine.3. : An 8-step program forlearning to like your looks. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger har¡¤bin¡¤ger?n.One that indicates or foreshadows what is to come; a forerunner.tr.v. har¡¤bin¡¤gered, har¡¤bin¡¤ger¡¤ing, har¡¤bin¡¤gersTo signal the approach of; presage. Publications. Cash, T.F . (2002a). Beyond traits: Assessing body image states. InT.F. Cash & T. Pruzinsky (Eds.), Body image: A handbook of theory,research, and clinical practice (pp. 163-170). NY: Guilford Press. Cash, T.F. (2002b). Cognitive behavioral perspectives on bodyimage. In T.F. Cash & T. Pruzinsky (Eds.), Body image: A handbook oftheory, research, and clinical practice (pp. 38-46). NY: Guilford Press. Cash, T.F. (2004a). Body-image assessments: Manuals andquestionnaires. Available from the author's web site athttp://www.body-images.com. Cash, T.F. (2004b). Body image: Past, present, and future. BodyImage: An International Journal of Research, 1, 1-5. Cash, T.F., & Fleming, E.C. (2002). The impact of body-imageexperiences: Development of the Body Image Quality of Life Inventory.International Journal of Eating Disorders eating disorders,in psychology, disorders in eating patterns that comprise four categories: anorexia nervosa, bulimia, rumination disorder, and pica. Anorex ia nervosa is characterized by self-starvation to avoid obesity. , 31, 455-460. Cash, T.F., Fleming, E.C., Alindogan, J., Steadman, L., &Whitehead, A. (2002). Beyond body image as a trait: The development andvalidation of the Body Image States Scale. Eating Disorders: The Journalof Treatment and Prevention, 10, 103-113. Cash, T.F., & Hrabosky, J.I. (2004). The treatment ofbody-image disturbances. In J.K. Thompson, (Ed.) Handbook of eatingdisorders and obesity (pp. 515-541). New York New York, state, United StatesNew York,Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of : Wiley. Cash, T.F., Jakatdar, T.A., & Williams, E.F. (in press). TheBody Image Quality of Life Inventory: Further validation with collegemen and women. Body Image: An International Journal of Research. Cash, T.F., & Labarge, A.S. (1996). Development of theAppearance Schemas Inventory: A new cognitive body-image assessment.Cognitive Therapy cognitive therapyn.Any of a variety of techniques in psychotherapy that utilize guided self-discovery, imaging, self-instruction, and related forms of elicited cognitions as the principal mode of treatment. and Research, 20, 37-50. Cash, T.F., Melnyk, S.E., & Hrabosky, J.I. (2004). Theassessment of body image investment: An extensive revision of theAppearance Schemas Inventory. International Journal of Eating Disorders,35, 305-316. Cash, T.F., & Pruzinsky, T. (Eds.) (2002). Body image: Ahandbook of theory, research, and clinical practice. New York: GuilfordPress. Cash, T.F., & Roy, R.E. (1999). Pounds of flesh: Weight,gender, and body images. In J. Sobal & D. Maurer (Eds.),Interpreting weight: The social management of fatness and thinness (pp.209-228). New York: Aldine de Gruyter. Cash, T.F., & Strachan, M.D. (2002). Cognitive behavioralapp roaches to changing body image. In T.F. Cash & T. Pruzinsky(Eds.), Body image: A handbook of theory, research, and clinicalpractice (pp. 478-486). New York: Guilford Press. Clayton, A.H., McGarvey, E L., & Clavet, G.J. (1996). Changesin Sexual Functioning Questionnaire (CSFQ)--Validation study.Psychopharmacology psychopharmacology(sī'kōfär'məkŏl`əjē), in its broadest sense, the study of all pharmacological agents that affect mental and emotional functions. Bulletin, 32, 423. Clayton, A.H., McGarvey, E.L., & Clavet, G.J. (1997). Changesin Sexual Functioning Questionnaire (CSFQ)--Development, reliability,and validity. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 33, 731-745. Cohane, G.H., & Pope, H.G., Jr. (2001). Body image in boys: Areview of the literature. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 29,373-379. Corson, P.W., & Andersen, A.E. (2002). Body image issues amongboys and men. In T.F. Cash & T. Pruzinsky (Eds.), Body i mage: Ahandbook of theory, research, and clinical practice (pp. 192-199). NewYork: Guilford Press. Dove, N.L., & Wiederman, M.W. (2000). Cognitive distraction andwomen's sexual functioning. Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy,26, 67-78. Faith, M. S., & Schare, M. L. (1993). The role of body image insexually avoidant behavior. Archives of Sexual Behavior Archives of Sexual Behavior is an academic sexology journal and the official publication of the International Academy of Sex Research.Contributions consist of empirical research (both quantitative and qualitative), theoretical reviews and essays, clinical case , 22, 345-356. Grant, J.R., & Cash, T.F. (1995). Cognitive-behavioral bodyimage therapy: Comparative efficacy of group and modest-contacttreatments. Behavior Therapy behavior therapyor behavior modification,in psychology, treatment of human behavioral disorders through the reinforcement of acceptable behavior and suppression of undesirable behavior. , 26 , 6984. Hangen, J.D., & Cash, T.F. (1991). The relationships ofbody-image attitudes to sexual functioning and experiences in a normalcollege population. Paper presented at the annual meeting of theAssociation for Advancement of Behavior Therapy, NY, NY. Labarge, A.S., Cash, T.F., & Brown, T.A. (1998). Use of amodified Stroop task to examine appearance schematic informationprocessing information processing:see data processing. information processingAcquisition, recording, organization, retrieval, display, and dissemination of information. Today the term usually refers to computer-based operations. in college women. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 22,177-188. Masters, W., & Johnson, V. (1970). Human sexual inadequacy.Boston, MA: Little, Brown. Olivardia, R. (2002). Body image and muscularity. In T.F. Cash& T. Pruzinsky (Eds.), Body image: A handbook of theory, research,and clinical practice (pp. 210-218). New York: Guilford Press. Schwartz, M.B., & Bro wnell, K.D. (2004). Obesity and bodyimage. Body Image: An International Journal of Research, 1, 43-56. Thompson, J.K., Heinberg, L.J., Altabe, M., & Tantleff-Dunn, S.(1999). Exacting beauty: Theory, assessment, and treatment of body imagedisturbance. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association. Wiederman, M.W. (2002). Body image and sexual functioning. In T.F.Cash & T. Pruzinsky (Eds.), Body image: A handbook of theory,research, and clinical practice (pp. 287-294). New York: Guilford Press. Wiederman, M.W., & Hurst, S.R. (1997). Physical attractiveness Physical attractiveness is the perception of the physical traits of an individual human person as pleasing or beautiful. It can include various implications, such as sexual attractiveness, cuteness, and physique. ,body image, and women's sexual self-schema. Psychology of WomenQuarterly, 21, 567-580. Williamson, D.A., Stewart, T.M., White, M.A., & York-Crowe, E.(2002). An information-processing pers pective on body image. In T.F.Cash & T. Pruzinsky (Eds.), Body image: A handbook of theory,research, and clinical practice (pp. 47-54). New York: Guilford Press. Yamamiya, Y., & Cash, T.F. (2002). Body image and sexualdecision-making. Unpublished manuscript, Old Dominion University,Norfolk, VA. Thomas F. Cash, Ph.D. (1), Cheryl L. Maikkula, B.S. (1), and YukoYamamiya, M.S. (2) Contact information for corresponding author: Thomas F. Cash, Ph.D., Department of Psychology, Old DominionUniversity, Norfolk, Virginia Norfolk is an independent city in the Commonwealth of Virginia, in the United States of America. With a population of 234,403 as of the 2000 census, Norfolk is Virginia's second-largest incorporated city. 23529 USA; Telephone: (757) 683-4439; Fax:(757) 683-5087; E-mail: TCash@odu.edu. (1) Department of Psychology, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VAUSA (2) Department of Psychology, University of South Florida ••[ , Tampa,FL USA

Handwoven Bowls of Diversity.

Handwoven Bowls of Diversity. My "Handwoven hand¡¤wo¡¤ven?adj.1. Woven on a hand-operated loom: handwoven rugs.2. Woven by hand: handwoven baskets.Adj. 1. Bowls of Diversity" project came to me whenI was working on a very limited budget and wanted to create a weavinglesson that would produce a unique product. I have seen many styles ofweaving throughout my art career, so I adapted this weaving method bycombining various techniques. Using only paper plates as a loom and bagsof leftover yarn for materials, my students and I were able to createsomething beautiful. [ILLUSTRATION OMITTED] CULTURE Throughout history, weavings have not only been made tokeep us warm and cover our floors, but they have also been created totell stories of triumph, glory, pains and struggles, and to show ourancestry and heritage. Weaving is truly a multicultural exper ience and atype of expression that has been found all over the world--it was evenused in cave art cave art:see Paleolithic art; rock carvings and paintings. times. There are glorious examples of American Indian,Asian, African, Mexican, Middle Eastern and Hawaiian weavings thatdemonstrate various styles, techniques, colors and stories of manycultures. We talked about the similarities of cultural weavings as well asthe ways they are different, and the many uses of weaving, from clothingto rugs. As we talked about culture and people, the students wanted toknow where these places were, and by looking at world maps we reallystarted to understand these faraway places. It became a great experiencenot only in making something beautiful, but also in teaching culturalgeography Cultural geography is a sub-field within human geography. Cultural Geography is the study of spatial variations among cultural groups and the spatial functioning of society. in a memorable way. [ILLUSTRATIONS OMITTED] THE PROCESS It was time to begin the process of weaving. First, wecreated our looms using round cardboard disks or paper plates. In orderto find the center of disk, we reviewed radius and how to find thediameter of circles. Students measured one-inch portions around thecircumference of the disk, and used scissors to create small slits forweaving. [ILLUSTRATION OMITTED] Each student then measured five yards of yarn and began setting upthe loom. Students chatted about the colors they were choosing, sayingthey chose an American Indian color scheme of bold earth tones, or thebright, vibrant colors of Mexican weavings. The students had such anin-depth understanding of weaving! It really became important to themthat the colors they chose matched the ideas and schemes of a certainculture. Once students chose their colors, they began weaving using anunder-and-over motion. At first they struggled with keeping a pattern,but soon all was silent. They were so intent on thei r motions that theyforgot to talk! After the weaving was complete and had been removed fromthe cardboard loom, students had the option of adding beads as anembellishment. The quiet while they were weaving also proved to be agreat opportunity to talk about the culture and diversity of the peopleand traditions we find throughout the world. CONSUMERISM As we talked about ancient weaving, the question ofcost arose. Students are always amazed a¡¤maze?v. a¡¤mazed, a¡¤maz¡¤ing, a¡¤maz¡¤esv.tr.1. To affect with great wonder; astonish. See Synonyms at surprise.2. Obsolete To bewilder; perplex.v.intr. to hear the prices of art. Westarted by talking about the cost of ancient tapestries and how most ofthem are museum quality. The conversation then turned to modern-day forms of weaving. It wasinteresting to note that most of the students assumed weaving was nolonger being done. I showed them it indeed is alive and well, and can bevery expensive, especially hand-woven garments and rug s. Oriental rugsare not only beautiful and extremely durable, they are also costly dueto the material used in production. We considered production, talking about handmade weaving versusmass-produced weavings, and their differences. We discussed which oneshould cost more and why. We also looked at images of largeindustrial-made rugs, which helped the students understand just how muchis invested in the production of large weavings, even today. CRAFTSMANSHIP Teaching weaving also teaches the ideals ofcraftsmanship, through care for students' work and dedication tothe final product. Weaving gives students the ability to understand aprocess-based unit of study, as well as a study of culture anddiversity, and a way to emulate an ancient tradition in modern-day art.They now have a richer, more complex understanding of the world ofweaving, and its impact on civilization and the culture in which welive. VOCABULARY Circumference Critical thinking Diameter Garments Hypothesize hy¡¤poth¡¤e¡¤size?v. hy¡¤poth¡¤e¡¤sized, hy¡¤poth¡¤e¡¤siz¡¤ing, hy¡¤poth¡¤e¡¤siz¡¤esv.tr.To assert as a hypothesis.v.intr.To form a hypothesis. Industrialization industrializationProcess of converting to a socioeconomic order in which industry is dominant. The changes that took place in Britain during the Industrial Revolution of the late 18th and 19th century led the way for the early industrializing nations of western Europe and Interlocking interlocking/in¡¤ter¡¤lock¡¤ing/ (-lok¡äing) closely joined, as by hooks or dovetails; locking into one another. interlockingObstetrics A rare complication of vaginal delivery of twins; the 1st pattern Loom Radius Shuttle Textiles Warp Weft LEARNING OBJECTIVES Upper-elementary and middle-school students will ... * develop their sewing, knotting, beading beading,n the scribing of a shallow groove (less than 0.5 mm in width or depth) on a cast that outlines the major connector. It is used to transfer the design to the invest ment cast and ensure tissue contact of the major connector. and weaving abilities bycreating a handwoven bowl. * apply the principles of form, texture, design and contrast totheir work. * compare and contrast weaving techniques to troubleshoot andinterpret information. * hypothesize about the outcomes of their woven creations. * identify the various stylistic differences between cultures ofweaving. * understand the significance of weaving within the IndustrialRevolution of the late 18th and early 19th centuries, enabling massproduction of textiles. * understand child labor child labor,use of the young as workers in factories, farms, and mines. Child labor was first recognized as a social problem with the introduction of the factory system in late 18th-century Great Britain. in many present-day Third World countriescontributes to the mass production of garments. MATERIALS * Multicolored yarn * Plastic weaving needles * Beads * Round cardboard disks or heavy-duty pa per plates * Pencils, rulers and scissors RESOURCES The following Web sites contain reproductions of the weavings ofvarious cultures including Navajo, European, Asian and Middle Eastern: * www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weaving * www.collectorsguide.com/fa/fa085.shtml * www.tribalexpressions.com/weaving/ weaving.htm * www.ethnomath.org/resources/ bird1982.html Karla Gearhart teaches art at Verner Elementary School elementary school:see school. in Verona,Pa.

The Magical Worlds of Harry Potter.

The Magical Worlds of Harry Potter. The Magical Worlds Of Harry Potter David Colbert Berkeley Group 375 Hudson St., New York New York, state, United StatesNew York,Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of NY 10014 042519891X $12.95 www.penguin penguin,originally the common name for the now extinct great auk of the N Atlantic and now used (since the 19th cent.) for the unrelated antarctic diving birds. .com Now expanded to include the latest Harry Potter title, Order Of ThePhoenix, David Colbert's collection of myths, legends and factssurrounding Harry Potter will delight any interested in the sources ofHarry's fantasy adventures. Harry Potter fans of all ages will findMag ical Worlds Of Harry Potter packed with fascinating facts aboutwizards, spells, and fantasy worlds This is a partial list of fictional fantasy worlds, according to the medium they appear in: Novels and short storiesAlaga?sia - Christopher Paolini novels Amber - Roger Zelazny's The Chronicles of Amber novels Arda - J.R.R. relating to relating torelate prep → concernantrelating torelate prep → bez¨¹glich +gen, mit Bezug auf +accPotter. Originallypublished in 2002, this new and expanded edition includes over sixtypages of significantly updated material.