"Baring the body in the bedroom": body image, sexual self-schemas, and sexual functioning among college women and men.

"Baring the body in the bedroom": body image, sexual self-schemas, and sexual functioning among college women and men. Abstract A growing literature points to the role of body-image attitudes inhuman sexual functioning. Specifically, body dissatisfaction andexcessive psychological investment in one's physical appearance maylead to physical self-consciousness and body exposure avoidance duringsexual relations sexual relationspl.n.1. Sexual intercourse.2. Sexual activity between individuals. , which in turn may impair sexual desire, enjoyment, andperformance. The present research with 145 college women and 118 collegemen evaluated a contextual body-image measure, the Body Exposure duringSexual Activities Questionnaire (BESAQ), which assesses anxious/avoidantbody focus during sex. Findings supported the BESAQ's reliabilityand validity. Associat ions with sexual functioning were stronger for theBESAQ than for trait body-image measures. For both sexes, better sexualfunctioning was related to less anxious/avoidant body focus and strongersexual self-schemas. Physical self-consciousness during sexual relationsfocused substantially on weight and gender-relevant attributes. Clinicaland research implications of the findings are considered. Introduction Body image refers to human experiences of embodiment and is amulti-faceted construct incorporating persons' perceptions andattitudes about their own body, especially their physical appearance(Cash & Pruzinsky, 2002). Body-image attitudes include one'sappearance-related cognitions (or schemas), emotions, and behaviors(Cash, 2002b). Most body-image research has focused on eatingdisturbances among women (Cash & Pruzinsky, 2002; Thompson,Heinberg, Altabe, & Tantleff-Dunn, 1999). Clearly, body image hasimplications for other facets of psychosocial psychosocial/psy¡¤ cho¡¤so¡¤cial/ (si?ko-so¡äshul) pertaining to or involving both psychic and social aspects. psy¡¤cho¡¤so¡¤cialadj.Involving aspects of both social and psychological behavior. functioning in both sexes(Cash & Fleming, 2002; Cash & Pruzinsky, 2002). Body-imageevaluations can influence one's interest in and experiences duringsexual activities. Masters and Johnson's (1970) classic perspectiveon "spectatoring" and Barlow's (1986) emphasis on anxiousself-focus have concentrated more on self-scrutiny of sexual performancethan on concerns about bodily appearance. However, scientists haverecently found that body dissatisfaction may inhibit sexual behavior sexual behaviorA person's sexual practices–ie, whether he/she engages in heterosexual or homosexual activity. See Sex life, Sexual life. andinterfere with the quality of sexual experiences (Wiederman, 2002). Much research on body image and sexual functioning assesses bodyimage as a global trait dimension--especially o verallsatisfaction-dissatisfaction with one's appearance. A promisingcomplementary approach examines body-image experiences in particularsituational contexts (Cash, 2002a). Reflecting the need for anassessment of body image within sexual contexts, Hangen and Cash (1991)developed the Body Exposure during Sexual Activities Questionnaire(BESAQ) to measure anxious attentional focus on and avoidance of bodyexposure during sexual relations. Their preliminary evidence and thatfrom another study (Faith & Schare, 1993) offered initial support ofthe BESAQ's reliability and its convergent and discriminantvalidity Discriminant validity describes the degree to which the operationalization is not similar to (diverges from) other operationalizations that it theoretically should not be similar to. . The central purpose of the present research was to investigatefurther the validity of this 28-item measure with both male and femalecollege students. We examined the BESAQ's relationship to severaldispositional or trait body-image measures--global body satisfaction,overweight preoccupation, and psychological investment in one's ownappearance. Because obesity is associated with a poorer body image (Cash& Roy, 1999; Schwartz & Brownell, 2004), we also examined therelationship of the BESAQ to body mass index. Recent research attests tothe utility of the sexual self-schema construct in understanding thequantity and quality of sexual experiences (Andersen & Cyranowski,1994; Andersen, Cyranowski, & Espindle, 1999). Sexual self-schemasare defined as "cognitive generalizations about sexual aspects ofoneself that are derived from past experience, manifest in currentexperience, influential in the processing of sexually relevant socialinformation, and guide sexual behavior" (Andersen & Cyranowski,1994, p. 1079). We measured this construct in the current study toascertain its relationship to the BESAQ. Perhaps most importantly Adv. 1. most importantly - above and beyond all other consideration; "above all, you must be independent"above all, most especially , wesought to discern how the BESAQ and other study variables predictedparticipants' sexual functioning. Accordingly, the research hadeight specific objectives or hypotheses: 1. The BESAQ was expected to be associated with poorer trait bodysatisfaction, more overweight preoccupation, and more dysfunctionalappearance investment. 2. We hypothesized a modest positive correlation Noun 1. positive correlation - a correlation in which large values of one variable are associated with large values of the other and small with small; the correlation coefficient is between 0 and +1direct correlation of the BESAQ andbody mass, with heavier persons reporting more anxious self-focus andexposure avoidance during sexual relations. 3. Weaker sexual self-schemas were expected to be associated withgreater selfconsciousness and exposure avoidance during sex. 4. BESAQ scores were expect ed to be predictable from both traitbody-image measures and sexual self-schemas. 5. We hypothesized that the BESAQ would predict aspects of sexualfunctioning--experiences of desire, arousal, orgasm orgasm/or¡¤gasm/ (or¡ägazm) the apex and culmination of sexual excitement.orgas¡ämic or¡¤gasmn. , and overall sexualsatisfaction. 6. We expected that the context-specific BESAQ's predictiveefficacy of sexual functioning would exceed that found for traitbody-image variables. 7. A multivariate analysis examined whether the BESAQ, along withother variables in the study, uniquely explained variance Explained variance is part of the variance of any residual that can be attributed to a specific condition (cause). The other part of variance is unexplained variance. The higher the explained variance relative to the total variance, the stronger the statistical measure used. in sexualfunctioning. 8. The literature on body image and sexuality lacks specificityregarding the physical self- foci of body image in this context.Therefore, a final, exploratory objective of this study was to providedescriptive information to answer the questions: What physicalcharacteristics do men and women feel self-conscious about during sexualrelations, and how do the sexes differ? Method Participants Sexually active college students at Old Dominion University “ODU” redirects here. For other uses, see ODU (disambiguation).The university was recently named one of the best colleges in the Southeast by The Princeton Review. , 145women and 118 men, participated voluntarily for extra credit inpsychology classes. Their median age was 21 years (range = 18 to 50).They were exclusively or predominantly heterosexual; 59% were White and26% African American African AmericanMulticulture A person having origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa.See Race. ; 88% were unmarried; and 60% had only one sexualpartner in the past year. They had been sexually active for a medi an of5 years and were in their current relationship for 1.8 years. Body massindex (BMI BMIbody mass index. BMIabbr.body mass indexBody mass index (BMI)A measurement that has replaced weight as the preferred determinant of obesity. = kg/m2) of men and women averaged 25.1 (SD = 4.2) and 24.0(SD = 5.6), respectively. Measures and Procedure In a research laboratory, following informed consent, participantsindividually and anonymously completed a demographic information formand these assessments: Body Exposure during Sexual Activities Questionnaire (BESAQ; Cash,2004a; Hangen & Cash, 1991): The BESAQ is a 28-item measure ofanxious attentional focus on and avoidance of body exposure during sex.Exemplary items are: "I don't like my partner to see mecompletely naked during sexual activity." "During sexualactivity I try to hide certain areas of my body." "I amself-conscious about my body during sexual activity." Respondentsrate each item on a 5-point frequency scale (0 = "Never " to 4= "Almost Always"). Higher scores reflect more self-consciousfocus and avoidance. In the present study, the BESAQ's internalconsistency In statistics and research, internal consistency is a measure based on the correlations between different items on the same test (or the same subscale on a larger test). It measures whether several items that propose to measure the same general construct produce similar scores. (Cronbach's alpha Cronbach's (alpha) has an important use as a measure of the reliability of a psychometric instrument. It was first named as alpha by Cronbach (1951), as he had intended to continue with further instruments. ) was .95 for men and .96 for women. Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire (MBSRQ MBSRQ Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire ; Brown,Cash, & Mikulka, 1990; Cash, 2004a): Two subscales of thewell-validated MBSRQ were used. Higher scores on the 9-item Body AreasSatisfaction Scale (BASS) indicate greater satisfa ction, on average,with specific physical areas or attributes (e.g., face, weight, lowertorso, height, etc.) on a 5-point response scale. The 4-item OverweightPreoccupation Scale (OPS Ops(ŏps), in Roman religion, goddess of harvests. She was the wife of Saturn, by whom she bore Jupiter and Juno. At her festivals, the Opiconsivia and the Opalia, held in August and December, respectively, she was worshiped as a goddess of sowing ) consists of 5-point ratings of fat anxiety,weight vigilance, eating restraint, and dieting, with higher scoresindicating greater preoccupation. In this sample, internal consistenciesof the BASS and OPS, respectively, were .80 and .74 among men and .82and .80 among women. Appearance Schemas Inventory (ASI ASI,n See Anxiety Sensitivity Index. ; Cash & Labarge, 1996): Thisis a 14-item assessment of dysfunctional investment in one'sappearance. Using a 5-point disagreeagree response format, exemplaryitems include: "I should do whatever I can to a lways look mybest." "My appearance is responsible for much of what hashappened to me in my life." Higher scores reflect morepsychological investment in one's appearance. The ASI'sinternal consistency in this study was .84 for men and .85 for women. Sexual Self-Schema Scale (SSSS SSSSStaphylococcus scalded skin syndrome, see there ; Andersen & Cyranowski, 1994;Andersen et al., 1999): The SSSS is an adjectival ad¡¤jec¡¤ti¡¤val?adj.Of, relating to, or functioning as an adjective.adjec¡¤ti inventory thatmeasures one's self-concept as a "sexual person,"consisting of a 50-item form for women and a 45-item form for men. Itemsdo not explicitly refer to sexuality. Each adjective is rated from 0("not at all descriptive") to 6 ("verydescriptive"). The SSSS is composed of three factor dimensions foreach sex. Among women, this self-view is one of passionate-romantic,open-direct, and (not) embarrassed-conservative. Among men, this is aself-view of passionate-loving, powerful-aggressi ve, and open-minded orliberal. In each case, higher scores indicate greater sexualself-schematicity. In this sample, the internal consistency of the SSSSwas .79 for men and .85 for women. Changes in Sexual Functioning Questionnaire (CSFQ CSFQ Core-Stateless Fair Queueing ; Clayton,McGarvey, & Clavet, 1996, 1997): The CSFQ is a validated 14-itemself-report measure of sexual functioning vis-a-vis experiences ofpleasure, desire, arousal, and orgasm. There are different forms for menand women that reflect some variation in wording of items, with 5-pointresponse options for each item. The CSFQ has subscales for sexualpleasure (1 item), desire/frequency (2 items), desire/interest (3items), arousal (3 items), and orgasm (3 items). In addition, a 14-itemtotal score may be calculated. Higher scores are indicative of morefavorable sexual functioning. In this study, the internal consistency ofthe CSFQ total score was .77 for men and .80 for women. Physical Self-Consciousness duri ng Sex Questionnaire (PSCSQ):Developed for this study, the inventory asks participants how often andhow intensely they experience selfconsciousness about 14 bodyareas/attributes during sexual relations (e.g., chest/breasts, hips,buttocks buttocks/but¡¤tocks/ (but¡äoks) the two fleshy prominences formed by the gluteal muscles on the lower part of the back. , thighs, scalp hair, etc.). Ratings were made on 5-point (0 to4) scales for each dimension and characteristic. A frequency X intensitycross-product gauged respondents' extent of self-consciousnessabout each attribute. Results Relationships of Trait Body Image and Body Mass with the BESAQ In relation to the first objective of the study, Pearsoncorrelations evaluated the BESAQ's associations with traitbody-image satisfaction, overweight preoccupation, and appearanceinvestment. As hypothesized, Table 1 confirms moderate relationships forboth sexes. Greater anxious self-focus and exposure avoidance during sexwas associated with less overall body satisfaction, more overweightpreoccupation, and more dysfunctional investment in one's physicalappearance. The study's second objective entailed an examination of therelationship of the BESAQ and body mass. As hypothesized, significantmodest relationships indicated that heavier persons reported somewhatmore anxious/avoidant body focus during sex. Relationships of Sexual Self-Schemas with the BESAQ The study's third objective was to examine the relationshipsof sexual self-schemas with BESAQ scores. Table 1 shows that women, butnot men, with a more sexual self-view reported less anxious/avoidantbody focus during sex. Analyses of SSSS factor scales revealed that allthree schema subscales were significantly (p < .01) related towomen's BESAQ scores (i.e., romantic-passionate, r = -.24;open-direct, r = -.23; and embarrassedconservative, r = .26). For men,only a powerful-aggressive self-view was significantly negativelycorrelated with the BESAQ (r = -.2 3, p < .05); passionate-loving andopenminded liberal self-views were unrelated to self-consciousness andexposure avoidance during sex. Multivariate Prediction of BESAQ Scores Regarding the study's fourth objective, standard multiplelinear regressions examined the prediction of BESAQ scores from thetrait body-image dimensions and sexual selfschemas. For men, each of thethree trait body-image variables significantly predicted BESAQ scores([R.sup.2] = .44, p < .001)--body dissatisfaction ([beta] = -.42, p< .001), appearance investment ([beta] = .28, p < .001), andoverweight preoccupation ([beta] = .19, p < .02). For women, bodydissatisfaction ([beta] = -.41, p < .001) and appearance investment([beta] = .38, p < .001) predicted the BESAQ ([R.sup.2] = .44, p <.001). Sexual self-schemas did not account for variance unexplained bythese trait body-image measures. Correlates and Prediction of Sexual Functioning Sexual functioning was measured by the CSFQ. Consistent withhypotheses from the study's fifth objective, Table 1 shows that forboth sexes, persons experiencing more anxious/avoidant body focus duringsex had significantly poorer sexual functioning in their currentrelationship. This was true for reported sexual pleasure, frequency ofsexual desire, and arousal and orgasmic experiences. It is noteworthythat correlations were generally higher for women than men. Table 2 summarizes the relationships of study variables with thecomposite CSFQ index of sexual functioning. As hypothesized in thestudy's sixth objective, for both sexes, the context-specific BESAQcorrelated with sexual functioning more strongly than did the traitbody-image measures. Body mass was unrelated to sexual functioning.Sexual selfschemas were significantly positively associated with sexualfunctioning for both women and men. Pertinent to the seventh research objective, multiple regressionanalyses examined the prediction of sexual functioning from variable sthat were significantly correlated with the CSFQ (from Table 2). Forwomen and men alike, two predictors accounted for significant variancein sexual functioning--sexual self-schemas and the BESAQ ([R.sup.2] =.20 for women and .16 for men, p < .001). More favorable functioningwas related to less anxious/avoidant body focus ([beta] = -.21 for men,p < .02, and -.25 for women, p < .002) and a more sexuallyschematic self-view ([beta] = .32 and .31, respectively, p < .001).Among women, this self-view reflected the composite of all threedimensions; for men, it reflected the powerful-aggressive sexualself-view. During Sex, Who are Physically Self-Conscious about What? In the study's final objective, we examined the physical fociof self-consciousness during sexual activities, using the PSCSQ. Table 3summarizes these data. Higher values reflect more frequent and intenseself-consciousness about a specific physical characteristic. It isempirically noteworthy that the mean composite PSCSQ scores weresignificantly correlated with the BESAQ (r = .61 for women and r = .69for men, p < .001). Among women, the top five foci were: (1) weightin general, (2) thighs, (3) waist, (4) buttocks, and (5) hips. Amongmen, these foci were: (1) weight in general, (2) muscularity, (3) waist,(4) chest, and (5) genitals gen¡¤i¡¤talspl.n.Genitalia. . As Table 3 shows, F tests indicated that,compared to women, men reported significantly more self-consciousnessduring sex about their scalp hair, lower arms/hands, and upperarms/shoulders. Women were more self-conscious than men about theirweight in general, thighs, hips, and buttocks. Discussion A growing literature highlights the importance of the body-imageconstruct to various aspects of sexual functioning (Wiederman, 2002).The principal purpose of this investigation was to evaluate further thereliability and validity of a measure of body-image experiencesoccurring specifically in sexual contexts. This 28-item Bo dy Exposureduring Sexual Activities Questionnaire assesses anxious self-focus onand avoidance of exposing aspects of one's physical appearance insexual contexts. The ideas and observations of Masters and Johnson Masters and Johnson,pioneering research team in the field of human sexuality, consisting of the gynecologistWilliam Howell Masters, 1915–2001, b. Cleveland, and the psychologistVirginia Eshelman Johnson, 1925–, b. (1970) and Barlow (1986) about the role of spectatoring or cognitiveinterference in sexual dysfunction sexual dysfunctionInability to experience arousal or achieve sexual satisfaction under ordinary circumstances, as a result of psychological or physiological problems. have focused more onperformance-based distraction. However, some evidence suggests that thedistinction between performance-oriented and appearance-focusedattention may be less clear for women (Dove & Wiederman, 2000). The present research confirms and extends preliminary rese archevidence of the reliability and validity of the BESAQ (Faith &Schare, 1993; Hangen & Cash, 1991). In our sample of sexuallyactive, heterosexual college women and men, we found that the highlyinternally consistent BESAQ converged appropriately (i.e., moderately)with three trait measures of body image for both sexes. Bivariate bi¡¤var¡¤i¡¤ate?adj.Mathematics Having two variables: bivariate binomial distribution.Adj. 1. correlations indicated that more anxious/avoidant body focus wasassociated with more trait body dissatisfaction, overweightpreoccupation, and dysfunctional investment in one's appearance. Aheavier body mass was also modestly related to more anxious/avoidantbody focus during sex, consistent with evidence of a more negative bodyimage among overweight or obese persons (Cash & Roy, 1999; Schwartz& Brownell, 2004). However, the findings indicated that suchself-conscious and avoidant experiences were more clearly related tobeing weight-preoccupied than to actual weight. For men, each of the three body-image traits explainedincrementally unique variance in their BESAQ scores. For women,anxious/avoidant self-focus on appearance was also predictable from bodydissatisfaction and appearance investment, which accounted for theiroverweight preoccupation. Thus, such self-conscious body-imageexperiences during sex reflect both discontent with one's body ingeneral and greater psychological investment in one's looks as asource of self-evaluation. The latter dimension increases the likelihoodof attending to and processing appearance-related information inspecific situational contexts (Cash, 2002b; Cash, Fleming, Alindogan,Steadman, & Whitehead, 2002; Cash, Melnyk, & Hrabosky, 2004;Labarge, Cash, & Brown, 1998; Williamson, Stewart, White, &York-Crowe, 2002). Results confirmed our hypothesis that higher BESAQ scores would beassociated with poorer levels of sexual functioning. Both women and menwith more anxious/av oidant appearance self-focus during sex indicatedless positive experiences vis-a-vis most aspects of their current sexualfunctioning. They reported less enjoyment of their sex life, lessfrequent desire for sex, as well as less consistency and quality intheir experiences of sexual arousal sexual arousalHorny/horniness, randy/randiness Physiology A state of sexual 'yellow alert' which has a mental component–↑ cortical responsiveness to sensory stimulation, and physical component–↑ penile sensitivity, neural response to stimuli, and orgasm. The only aspect ofsexual functioning that was unrelated to the BESAQ pertained to sexualdesire as reflected by fantasized rather than actual experience. Thesefindings collectively support the validity of the BESAQ. The fact thatonly minimal or nonsignificant non¡¤sig¡¤nif¡¤i¡¤cant?adj.1. Not significant.2. Having, producing, or being a value obtained from a statistical test that lies within the limits for being of ran dom occurrence. associations were observed between traitbody-image measures and sexual functioning affirms the importance ofcontextual body-image assessment. Thus, the BESAQ is a much betterpredictor of sexual functioning than are measures of body image asgeneral trait dispositions. What matters most are the bodyimageexperiences in the experiential sexual context. With respect to sexual self-schemas, our results expand those fromWiederman and Hurst (1997), who found that women with more positivesexual self-schemas rated themselves as more physically attractive andreported less social avoidance due to body-image anxiety. We also foundthat sexually self-schematic women (Andersen & Cyranowski, 1994),who viewed themselves as romantic-passionate, open-direct, and notembarrassedconservative persons, reported less anxiousself-consciousness and body-exposure avoidance during sex. Perhaps theirconsistent self-identity as a "sexual person" leads them tofocus more on the self-cong ruent experience of sexual behaviors andsensate sen¡¤sateor sen¡¤sat¡¤edadj.1. Perceived by a sense or the senses.2. Having physical sensation. pleasures than on a partner's potential evaluations oftheir appearance. Among men, one facet of sexual self-schemas (Andersenet al., 1999) was associated with BESAQ scores. Specifically, men with apowerful-aggressive self-view (but not necessarily passionateloving oropen-minded liberal self-views) reported less anxious/avoidant physicalselffocus during sex. Perhaps this identity entails a more active orassertive behavioral orientation to sex rather than a reflective orrelational orientation. Men lacking this selfview are somewhat moreself-conscious about their body during sex. Notwithstanding these modestassociations between the BESAQ and sexual self-schemas, regressionanalyses confirmed that both variables independently contributed to theprediction of sexual functioning for women and men. Although our findings confirm the salienc e sa¡¤li¡¤ence? also sa¡¤li¡¤en¡¤cyn. pl. sa¡¤li¡¤en¡¤ces also sa¡¤li¡¤en¡¤cies1. The quality or condition of being salient.2. A pronounced feature or part; a highlight.Noun 1. of body-imageexperiences in sexual relations, they offer no insight into the specificfoci of concerns for women and men. An assessment of the frequency andintensity of self-consciousness about various physical characteristicswas elucidating. Women's most self-conscious foci were their weightand gender-relevant shape attributes--weight in general, thighs, waist,buttocks, and hips. Men's foci were their weight in general,muscularity, waist, chest, and genitals. Relative to women, men weremore self-conscious about their scalp hair, lower arms/hands, and upperarms/shoulders, whereas women were more self-conscious about weight,thighs, hips, and buttocks. In sum, both women and men report physicalself-consciousness during sex, but they focus on different,gender-relevant physical characteristics. Directio ns for future research are myriad. As body-imageresearchers often exclusively study women (Cash, 2004b), our inclusionof men in the study was an important direction. Recent research pointsto body-image issues that many boys and men face, particularly concernsabout conforming to societal ideals of muscularity (Cohane & Pope,2001; Corson & Andersen, 2002; Olivardia, 2002). Our findings derivefrom a sample of individuals in their current sexual relationship for anaverage of nearly 2 years, and 60% of our sample had only one sexualpartner in the past year. As Wiederman (2002) notes, research is lackingon the role of body-image experiences in persons' first sexualencounter with a new partner. In one study of such experiences, Yamamiyaand Cash (2002) found that women with higher BESAQ scores reported moreambivalence/acquiescence in their decision to have sex with the partner,greater emotional detachment during sex, and more subsequent regret andconcerns about acceptance. F urther research on body image in sexualcontexts should expand the diversity of samples to study older adults,gay and lesbian individuals, persons with physical disabilities, andclinical populations (e.g., those with sexual dysfunctions). Body-image experiences are integral to the quality of life of womenand men, including the quality of sexual life (Cash & Fleming, 2002;Cash, Jakatdar, & Williams, in press). An anxious, self-consciousfocus on one's appearance and avoidance of bodily exposure duringsex may undermine one's sexual functioning. These and other data(Wiederman, 2002) suggest the value of incorporating body-imageinterventions into the treatment of sexual dysfunctions. For example,cognitive-behavioral body-image therapy (Cash, 1997; Cash &Hrabosky, 2004; Cash & Strachan, 2002) is an efficacious ef¡¤fi¡¤ca¡¤cious?adj.Producing or capable of producing a desired effect. See Synonyms at effective.[From Latin effic treatmentof bodyimage difficulties and disorders, with outcomes empirically shownto ameliorate a¡¤mel¡¤io¡¤rate?tr. & intr.v. a¡¤me¡¤lio¡¤rat¡¤ed, a¡¤me¡¤lio¡¤rat¡¤ing, a¡¤me¡¤lio¡¤ratesTo make or become better; improve. See Synonyms at improve.[Alteration of meliorate. physical self-consciousness during sex (Grant & Cash,1995). References Andersen, B.L., & Cyranowski, J.M. (1994). Women's sexualself-schema. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology The Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (often referred to as JPSP) is a monthly psychology journal of the American Psychological Association. It is considered one of the top journals in the fields of social and personality psychology. , 67,1079-1100. Andersen, B.L., Cyranowski, J.M., & Espindle, D. (1999).Men's sexual self-schema. Journal of Personality and SocialPsychology, 76, 645-661. Barlow, D.H. (1986). Causes of sexual dysfunction: The role ofanxiety and cognitive interference. Journal of Consulting and ClinicalPsychology The Jou rnal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology (JCCP) is a bimonthly psychology journal of the American Psychological Association. Its focus is on treatment and prevention in all areas of clinical and clinical-health psychology and especially on topics that appeal to a broad , 54, 140-148. Brown, T.A., Cash, T.F., & Mikulka, P.J. (1990). Attitudinalbody-image assessment: Factor analysis of the Body-Self RelationsQuestionnaire. Journal of Personality Assessment, 55, 135-144. Cash, T.F. (1997). The body image workbook work¡¤book?n.1. A booklet containing problems and exercises that a student may work directly on the pages.2. A manual containing operating instructions, as for an appliance or machine.3. : An 8-step program forlearning to like your looks. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger har¡¤bin¡¤ger?n.One that indicates or foreshadows what is to come; a forerunner.tr.v. har¡¤bin¡¤gered, har¡¤bin¡¤ger¡¤ing, har¡¤bin¡¤gersTo signal the approach of; presage. Publications. Cash, T.F . (2002a). Beyond traits: Assessing body image states. InT.F. Cash & T. Pruzinsky (Eds.), Body image: A handbook of theory,research, and clinical practice (pp. 163-170). NY: Guilford Press. Cash, T.F. (2002b). Cognitive behavioral perspectives on bodyimage. In T.F. Cash & T. Pruzinsky (Eds.), Body image: A handbook oftheory, research, and clinical practice (pp. 38-46). NY: Guilford Press. Cash, T.F. (2004a). Body-image assessments: Manuals andquestionnaires. Available from the author's web site athttp://www.body-images.com. Cash, T.F. (2004b). Body image: Past, present, and future. BodyImage: An International Journal of Research, 1, 1-5. Cash, T.F., & Fleming, E.C. (2002). The impact of body-imageexperiences: Development of the Body Image Quality of Life Inventory.International Journal of Eating Disorders eating disorders,in psychology, disorders in eating patterns that comprise four categories: anorexia nervosa, bulimia, rumination disorder, and pica. Anorex ia nervosa is characterized by self-starvation to avoid obesity. , 31, 455-460. Cash, T.F., Fleming, E.C., Alindogan, J., Steadman, L., &Whitehead, A. (2002). Beyond body image as a trait: The development andvalidation of the Body Image States Scale. Eating Disorders: The Journalof Treatment and Prevention, 10, 103-113. Cash, T.F., & Hrabosky, J.I. (2004). The treatment ofbody-image disturbances. In J.K. Thompson, (Ed.) Handbook of eatingdisorders and obesity (pp. 515-541). New York New York, state, United StatesNew York,Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of : Wiley. Cash, T.F., Jakatdar, T.A., & Williams, E.F. (in press). TheBody Image Quality of Life Inventory: Further validation with collegemen and women. Body Image: An International Journal of Research. Cash, T.F., & Labarge, A.S. (1996). Development of theAppearance Schemas Inventory: A new cognitive body-image assessment.Cognitive Therapy cognitive therapyn.Any of a variety of techniques in psychotherapy that utilize guided self-discovery, imaging, self-instruction, and related forms of elicited cognitions as the principal mode of treatment. and Research, 20, 37-50. Cash, T.F., Melnyk, S.E., & Hrabosky, J.I. (2004). Theassessment of body image investment: An extensive revision of theAppearance Schemas Inventory. International Journal of Eating Disorders,35, 305-316. Cash, T.F., & Pruzinsky, T. (Eds.) (2002). Body image: Ahandbook of theory, research, and clinical practice. New York: GuilfordPress. Cash, T.F., & Roy, R.E. (1999). Pounds of flesh: Weight,gender, and body images. In J. Sobal & D. Maurer (Eds.),Interpreting weight: The social management of fatness and thinness (pp.209-228). New York: Aldine de Gruyter. Cash, T.F., & Strachan, M.D. (2002). Cognitive behavioralapp roaches to changing body image. In T.F. Cash & T. Pruzinsky(Eds.), Body image: A handbook of theory, research, and clinicalpractice (pp. 478-486). New York: Guilford Press. Clayton, A.H., McGarvey, E L., & Clavet, G.J. (1996). Changesin Sexual Functioning Questionnaire (CSFQ)--Validation study.Psychopharmacology psychopharmacology(sī'kōfär'məkŏl`əjē), in its broadest sense, the study of all pharmacological agents that affect mental and emotional functions. Bulletin, 32, 423. Clayton, A.H., McGarvey, E.L., & Clavet, G.J. (1997). Changesin Sexual Functioning Questionnaire (CSFQ)--Development, reliability,and validity. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 33, 731-745. Cohane, G.H., & Pope, H.G., Jr. (2001). Body image in boys: Areview of the literature. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 29,373-379. Corson, P.W., & Andersen, A.E. (2002). Body image issues amongboys and men. In T.F. Cash & T. Pruzinsky (Eds.), Body i mage: Ahandbook of theory, research, and clinical practice (pp. 192-199). NewYork: Guilford Press. Dove, N.L., & Wiederman, M.W. (2000). Cognitive distraction andwomen's sexual functioning. Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy,26, 67-78. Faith, M. S., & Schare, M. L. (1993). The role of body image insexually avoidant behavior. Archives of Sexual Behavior Archives of Sexual Behavior is an academic sexology journal and the official publication of the International Academy of Sex Research.Contributions consist of empirical research (both quantitative and qualitative), theoretical reviews and essays, clinical case , 22, 345-356. Grant, J.R., & Cash, T.F. (1995). Cognitive-behavioral bodyimage therapy: Comparative efficacy of group and modest-contacttreatments. Behavior Therapy behavior therapyor behavior modification,in psychology, treatment of human behavioral disorders through the reinforcement of acceptable behavior and suppression of undesirable behavior. , 26 , 6984. Hangen, J.D., & Cash, T.F. (1991). The relationships ofbody-image attitudes to sexual functioning and experiences in a normalcollege population. Paper presented at the annual meeting of theAssociation for Advancement of Behavior Therapy, NY, NY. Labarge, A.S., Cash, T.F., & Brown, T.A. (1998). Use of amodified Stroop task to examine appearance schematic informationprocessing information processing:see data processing. information processingAcquisition, recording, organization, retrieval, display, and dissemination of information. Today the term usually refers to computer-based operations. in college women. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 22,177-188. Masters, W., & Johnson, V. (1970). Human sexual inadequacy.Boston, MA: Little, Brown. Olivardia, R. (2002). Body image and muscularity. In T.F. Cash& T. Pruzinsky (Eds.), Body image: A handbook of theory, research,and clinical practice (pp. 210-218). New York: Guilford Press. Schwartz, M.B., & Bro wnell, K.D. (2004). Obesity and bodyimage. Body Image: An International Journal of Research, 1, 43-56. Thompson, J.K., Heinberg, L.J., Altabe, M., & Tantleff-Dunn, S.(1999). Exacting beauty: Theory, assessment, and treatment of body imagedisturbance. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association. Wiederman, M.W. (2002). Body image and sexual functioning. In T.F.Cash & T. Pruzinsky (Eds.), Body image: A handbook of theory,research, and clinical practice (pp. 287-294). New York: Guilford Press. Wiederman, M.W., & Hurst, S.R. (1997). Physical attractiveness Physical attractiveness is the perception of the physical traits of an individual human person as pleasing or beautiful. It can include various implications, such as sexual attractiveness, cuteness, and physique. ,body image, and women's sexual self-schema. Psychology of WomenQuarterly, 21, 567-580. Williamson, D.A., Stewart, T.M., White, M.A., & York-Crowe, E.(2002). An information-processing pers pective on body image. In T.F.Cash & T. Pruzinsky (Eds.), Body image: A handbook of theory,research, and clinical practice (pp. 47-54). New York: Guilford Press. Yamamiya, Y., & Cash, T.F. (2002). Body image and sexualdecision-making. Unpublished manuscript, Old Dominion University,Norfolk, VA. Thomas F. Cash, Ph.D. (1), Cheryl L. Maikkula, B.S. (1), and YukoYamamiya, M.S. (2) Contact information for corresponding author: Thomas F. Cash, Ph.D., Department of Psychology, Old DominionUniversity, Norfolk, Virginia Norfolk is an independent city in the Commonwealth of Virginia, in the United States of America. With a population of 234,403 as of the 2000 census, Norfolk is Virginia's second-largest incorporated city. 23529 USA; Telephone: (757) 683-4439; Fax:(757) 683-5087; E-mail: TCash@odu.edu. (1) Department of Psychology, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VAUSA (2) Department of Psychology, University of South Florida ••[ , Tampa,FL USA

Handwoven Bowls of Diversity.

Handwoven Bowls of Diversity. My "Handwoven hand¡¤wo¡¤ven?adj.1. Woven on a hand-operated loom: handwoven rugs.2. Woven by hand: handwoven baskets.Adj. 1. Bowls of Diversity" project came to me whenI was working on a very limited budget and wanted to create a weavinglesson that would produce a unique product. I have seen many styles ofweaving throughout my art career, so I adapted this weaving method bycombining various techniques. Using only paper plates as a loom and bagsof leftover yarn for materials, my students and I were able to createsomething beautiful. [ILLUSTRATION OMITTED] CULTURE Throughout history, weavings have not only been made tokeep us warm and cover our floors, but they have also been created totell stories of triumph, glory, pains and struggles, and to show ourancestry and heritage. Weaving is truly a multicultural exper ience and atype of expression that has been found all over the world--it was evenused in cave art cave art:see Paleolithic art; rock carvings and paintings. times. There are glorious examples of American Indian,Asian, African, Mexican, Middle Eastern and Hawaiian weavings thatdemonstrate various styles, techniques, colors and stories of manycultures. We talked about the similarities of cultural weavings as well asthe ways they are different, and the many uses of weaving, from clothingto rugs. As we talked about culture and people, the students wanted toknow where these places were, and by looking at world maps we reallystarted to understand these faraway places. It became a great experiencenot only in making something beautiful, but also in teaching culturalgeography Cultural geography is a sub-field within human geography. Cultural Geography is the study of spatial variations among cultural groups and the spatial functioning of society. in a memorable way. [ILLUSTRATIONS OMITTED] THE PROCESS It was time to begin the process of weaving. First, wecreated our looms using round cardboard disks or paper plates. In orderto find the center of disk, we reviewed radius and how to find thediameter of circles. Students measured one-inch portions around thecircumference of the disk, and used scissors to create small slits forweaving. [ILLUSTRATION OMITTED] Each student then measured five yards of yarn and began setting upthe loom. Students chatted about the colors they were choosing, sayingthey chose an American Indian color scheme of bold earth tones, or thebright, vibrant colors of Mexican weavings. The students had such anin-depth understanding of weaving! It really became important to themthat the colors they chose matched the ideas and schemes of a certainculture. Once students chose their colors, they began weaving using anunder-and-over motion. At first they struggled with keeping a pattern,but soon all was silent. They were so intent on thei r motions that theyforgot to talk! After the weaving was complete and had been removed fromthe cardboard loom, students had the option of adding beads as anembellishment. The quiet while they were weaving also proved to be agreat opportunity to talk about the culture and diversity of the peopleand traditions we find throughout the world. CONSUMERISM As we talked about ancient weaving, the question ofcost arose. Students are always amazed a¡¤maze?v. a¡¤mazed, a¡¤maz¡¤ing, a¡¤maz¡¤esv.tr.1. To affect with great wonder; astonish. See Synonyms at surprise.2. Obsolete To bewilder; perplex.v.intr. to hear the prices of art. Westarted by talking about the cost of ancient tapestries and how most ofthem are museum quality. The conversation then turned to modern-day forms of weaving. It wasinteresting to note that most of the students assumed weaving was nolonger being done. I showed them it indeed is alive and well, and can bevery expensive, especially hand-woven garments and rug s. Oriental rugsare not only beautiful and extremely durable, they are also costly dueto the material used in production. We considered production, talking about handmade weaving versusmass-produced weavings, and their differences. We discussed which oneshould cost more and why. We also looked at images of largeindustrial-made rugs, which helped the students understand just how muchis invested in the production of large weavings, even today. CRAFTSMANSHIP Teaching weaving also teaches the ideals ofcraftsmanship, through care for students' work and dedication tothe final product. Weaving gives students the ability to understand aprocess-based unit of study, as well as a study of culture anddiversity, and a way to emulate an ancient tradition in modern-day art.They now have a richer, more complex understanding of the world ofweaving, and its impact on civilization and the culture in which welive. VOCABULARY Circumference Critical thinking Diameter Garments Hypothesize hy¡¤poth¡¤e¡¤size?v. hy¡¤poth¡¤e¡¤sized, hy¡¤poth¡¤e¡¤siz¡¤ing, hy¡¤poth¡¤e¡¤siz¡¤esv.tr.To assert as a hypothesis.v.intr.To form a hypothesis. Industrialization industrializationProcess of converting to a socioeconomic order in which industry is dominant. The changes that took place in Britain during the Industrial Revolution of the late 18th and 19th century led the way for the early industrializing nations of western Europe and Interlocking interlocking/in¡¤ter¡¤lock¡¤ing/ (-lok¡äing) closely joined, as by hooks or dovetails; locking into one another. interlockingObstetrics A rare complication of vaginal delivery of twins; the 1st pattern Loom Radius Shuttle Textiles Warp Weft LEARNING OBJECTIVES Upper-elementary and middle-school students will ... * develop their sewing, knotting, beading beading,n the scribing of a shallow groove (less than 0.5 mm in width or depth) on a cast that outlines the major connector. It is used to transfer the design to the invest ment cast and ensure tissue contact of the major connector. and weaving abilities bycreating a handwoven bowl. * apply the principles of form, texture, design and contrast totheir work. * compare and contrast weaving techniques to troubleshoot andinterpret information. * hypothesize about the outcomes of their woven creations. * identify the various stylistic differences between cultures ofweaving. * understand the significance of weaving within the IndustrialRevolution of the late 18th and early 19th centuries, enabling massproduction of textiles. * understand child labor child labor,use of the young as workers in factories, farms, and mines. Child labor was first recognized as a social problem with the introduction of the factory system in late 18th-century Great Britain. in many present-day Third World countriescontributes to the mass production of garments. MATERIALS * Multicolored yarn * Plastic weaving needles * Beads * Round cardboard disks or heavy-duty pa per plates * Pencils, rulers and scissors RESOURCES The following Web sites contain reproductions of the weavings ofvarious cultures including Navajo, European, Asian and Middle Eastern: * www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weaving * www.collectorsguide.com/fa/fa085.shtml * www.tribalexpressions.com/weaving/ weaving.htm * www.ethnomath.org/resources/ bird1982.html Karla Gearhart teaches art at Verner Elementary School elementary school:see school. in Verona,Pa.

The Magical Worlds of Harry Potter.

The Magical Worlds of Harry Potter. The Magical Worlds Of Harry Potter David Colbert Berkeley Group 375 Hudson St., New York New York, state, United StatesNew York,Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of NY 10014 042519891X $12.95 www.penguin penguin,originally the common name for the now extinct great auk of the N Atlantic and now used (since the 19th cent.) for the unrelated antarctic diving birds. .com Now expanded to include the latest Harry Potter title, Order Of ThePhoenix, David Colbert's collection of myths, legends and factssurrounding Harry Potter will delight any interested in the sources ofHarry's fantasy adventures. Harry Potter fans of all ages will findMag ical Worlds Of Harry Potter packed with fascinating facts aboutwizards, spells, and fantasy worlds This is a partial list of fictional fantasy worlds, according to the medium they appear in: Novels and short storiesAlaga?sia - Christopher Paolini novels Amber - Roger Zelazny's The Chronicles of Amber novels Arda - J.R.R. relating to relating torelate prep → concernantrelating torelate prep → bez¨¹glich +gen, mit Bezug auf +accPotter. Originallypublished in 2002, this new and expanded edition includes over sixtypages of significantly updated material.

What is modern behaviour?

What is modern behaviour? DANIEL KAUFMAN. Archaeological perspectives on the origins ofmodern humans: a view from the Levant Levant(ləvănt`)[Ital.,=east], collective name for the countries of the eastern shore of the Mediterranean from Egypt to, and including, Turkey. . xii+141 pages, 5 figures, 10tables. 1999. Westport (CT): Bergin & Garvey; 0-89789-578-9 hardback$72.95. OFER BAR-YOSEF Ofer Bar-Yosef (born 1937) is an Israeli archaeologist whose main field of study has been the Palaeolithic period.He was Professor of Prehistoric Archaeology at Hebrew University in Jerusalem, the institution where he originally studied archaeology at undergraduate and & DAVID PILBEAM David Pilbeam is the Henry Ford II Professor of the Social Sciences at Harvard University and curator of paleoanthropology at the Peabody Museum of Archaeology a nd Ethnology. He is a member of the National Academy of Sciences. He received his Ph.D. from Yale University. (ed.). The geography ofNeandertals and Modern humans in Europe and the greater Mediterranean(Peabody Museum The Peabody Museum can refer to several museums founded by or dedicated to George Peabody: George Peabody House Museum at his birthplace in Peabody, Massachusetts Peabody Leather Museum in Peabody, Massachusetts Bulletin 8). x+197 pages, 69 figures, 31 tables. 2000.Cambridge (MA): Peabody Museum of Archaeology & Ethnology ethnology(ĕthnŏl`əjē), scientific study of the origin and functioning of human cultures. It is usually considered one of the major branches of cultural anthropology, the other two being anthropological archaeology and ;0-87365-958-9 paperback $25. C.B. STRINGER, R.N.E. BARTON & J. FINLAYSON (ed.). Neandertalson the edge: papers from a conference marking the 150th anniversary ofthe Forbes' Quarry discovery, Gibralt ar. xi+267 pages, 150 figures,36 tables. 2000. Oxford: Oxbow; 1-84217-015-5 hardback 45 [poundssterling]. It is now some 20 years since the `Out of Africa' hypothesisimpacted on our views of modern human origins. The arrival of thesethree volumes together provides a timely opportunity to examine how farour understanding has developed since then. The volumes contrast in thatone is a personal essay on the subject, one derives from a brief seminarand the third from a more formal conference with a theme derived fromthe anniversary of the Gibraltar skull finds. Despite this difference,there is much to be gained by reading them in conjunction, not least abetter understanding of where these studies have reached. It is clear,for example, that the application of radiometric dating has opened upquestions of contemporaneity between Neanderthals and modern humans andclarified the relationships between different lithic lith¡¤ic?1?adj.Consisting of or relating to stone or rock.Adj. 1. li thic - of or containing lithium2. lithic - relating to or composed of stone; "lithic sandstone" industries. It alsoshows the complexity of addressing behaviour and ecology across a mosaicof landscapes. In the elapsed time, the use of DNA DNA:see nucleic acid. DNAor deoxyribonucleic acidOne of two types of nucleic acid (the other is RNA); a complex organic compound found in all living cells and many viruses. It is the chemical substance of genes. for examining therelationships between hominids has also been informative: allowing forconcern over extrapolating from a small sample, the mitochondrial DNAstudy of the Neander Valley specimen strongly suggests that Neanderthalsare a separate species from ourselves. Equally important are therefinements in our understanding of the environmental changes sinceOxygen Isotope Stage (OIS Noun 1. OIS - agency that oversees the intelligence relationships of the Treasury's offices and bureaus and provides a link between the Intelligence Commu nity and officials responsible for international economic policyOffice of Intelligence Support ) 5. There were clearly times at: which therate of change would have been memorable to generations of humans--thepicture of huge ice masses and environmental turnover becomes, at times,of a human scale. It remains the challenge for these studies to identifywhat a `human' scale might be. A flier for one of the DalrympleLectures of 2001 by Professor Stringer read `even if the Neanderthalswere not our ancestors, they were fully human'. As ever, the debateabout Neanderthals falls quickly into the most fundamentalquestion--what defines a `human'? The question as to what is `human' behaviour is one touched onin most detail by Kaufman who, on the basis of lithic technology andecology as interpreted from the archaeological record in the Levant,suggests that there was very little to separate Neanderthals fromourselves. In a well-ordered and thoughtful essay, he presents aposition where the cultural similarities between Middle EasternNeanderthals and Modern Humans are believed to be too close to disregardtheir potential interaction. Although he recognises the DNA evidence Among the many new tools that science has provided for the analysis of forensic evidence is the powerful and controversial analysis of deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, the material that makes up the genetic code of most organisms. asimportant, interaction in the cultural sphere is stressed with all the`modern' cultural traits present in homini ds by OIS 5. DidNeanderthals give us something other than genes? What is important inthis essay is the suggestion that although there appears to be rapiddrawing together of `modern' cultural traits, this is because of acommon and ancient ancestry belonging in the Lower Palaeolithic. Thisshould become a wonderful starting point for a review of the Acheuleanand is a challenge that now needs to be met. Bar-Yosef & Pilbeam draw together a number of separ ate paperson the geography of Neanderthals and modern humans in the `GreaterMediterranean'. It is a shame that much of North Africa is dealtwith so briefly in chapters 6 (Bar-Yosef) and 7 (Hublin), but this is areflection of the need for more research in that area. What makes it allthe more potentially interesting is the late survival of Neanderthals inSpain below the Ebro Valley, where it seems populations of modern humanswere kept out for some 5-10,000 years. The Middle Palaeolithicindustries of southern Spain have been likened to those of NorthAfrica--flake cleavers, tanged pieces, etc.--does the new evidencerefute these suggested links? Recent work by Barton et al. (2001) inMorocco has great potential to address some of these issues. The paper by Carbonell et al. in this volume is a very usefulsynthesis of the new data but this issue is not dealt with effectively.It is, however, raised in the Gibraltar volume (Stringer et al.) where anumber of papers present a wide rang e of data and discussion on the Ebrofrontier theory and its implications (Zilhao, Raposo, Cabrera et al.)with more specific data presented by a number of other authors (Pachecoet al., Pan et al., Pasto et al. and Sanchez). The Iberian evidenceshows a lag in colonization by modern humans and suggests theAurignacian is intrusive, Neanderthals using Mousterian technology wereable to compete for many generations and it is only with a significantand long-term environmental change that modern humans replace them. The `classical' area of France is dealt with in both volumesby Mellars, who presents the chronological and lithic data and itsimplications in his usual clear manner. At the Gibraltar conferenceMellars is complemented by a paper on the southern Mousterian by Szmidt,an area outside Mellars' key concern and supported by Rigaudworking mostly within the Perigord. The Middle to Upper Palaeolithictransition is seen as a revolution with the Chatelperronian beingascribed to Neand erthals adopting modern behaviour. Indeed, it is aquestion as to whether there is a `transition' or a replacement.Discussion of the Italian evidence matches that for France, with theearliest Upper Palaeolithic, the Ulluzian, being considered the productof acculturation acculturation,culture changes resulting from contact among various societies over time. Contact may have distinct results, such as the borrowing of certain traits by one culture from another, or the relative fusion of separate cultures. (Kuhn & Bietti in Bar-Yosef & Pilbeam). Kozlowski's paper in the latter covers a large geographicalarea with significant archaeological variability, and pattern seen to bedifficult to discern. The paper would benefit from a little moreintrusive editing. It is likely that this area is the origin of theAurignacian and thus the pivotal location for understanding theMiddle-Upper Palaeolithic transition. There does seem to a chronologicalpattern of east-west spread of the A urignacian into western Europeassociated with modern humans, but hominid hominidAny member of the zoological family Hominidae (order Primates), which consists of the great apes (orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees, and bonobos) as well as human beings. fossils are rare and thisstill needs to be tested. The Afterword in the Bar-Yosef & Pilbeamvolume presents summary maps for this that are useful (as indeed aremuch of the data presented in that work). The importance of the Levant for this debate is unquestionable andthe evidence is ably summarized by Bar-Yosef in both volumes. Thecomparison of this cultural `revolution' with a later one (theNeolithic) in the Gibraltar work is an interesting method of addressingthe issues and of considering the nature of cultural change. In theGeography volume a great deal of useful data is described and madeaccessible. It should be stressed that this volume concentrates on thedrawing together of much data so that an effective geography of t hearchaeology of Neanderthals and modern humans can be discussed. In thisit is most successful. Whilst it raises significant questions, this workis an effective attempt at synthesizing material so that furtherinvestigation can be attempted. A most significant question is that of Neanderthal/modern humaninteractions and this is addressed by Hublin in the Geography. The roleof geography in these interactions is considered and identified forlithic technology but the notion that Homo neanderthalensis is aseparate species is presented as a conclusion. The author believes therewas cultural interaction but no significant genetic contribution. The Gibraltar conference has many papers on the current worklinking the Gibraltar sites to southern Iberia (Findlayson &Pacheo), summarizing the status of the skull and Neanderthal studies(Stringer), the dating of the sites and its implications (Pettitt &Bailey, Volterra et al. and Rink et al.). Taphonomy ta¡¤phon¡¤o¡¤my?n.1. The st udy of the conditions and processes by which organisms become fossilized.2. The conditions and processes of fossilization. and environmentalevidence is well presented and important at these sites, showing therole of different agencies in creating the deposits, the environmentsavailable to the inhabitants and the nature of the occupations (papersby Fernandez & Andrews, Macphail & Goldberg and Currant currant,northern shrub of the family Saxifragaceae (saxifrage family), of the same genus (Ribes) as the gooseberry bush. The tart berries of the currant may be black, white, or red; the white gooseberry becomes purple when mature. ).Particularly informative are papers on the charred remains (Gale &Carruthers) and hearths (Barton), giving a rare insight into the use offire in food processing. The introduction of quantities of shellfish tothe site is also of interest--they must have come from an estuarine es¡¤tu¡¤a¡¤rine?adj.1. Of, relating to, or found in an estuary. 2. Geology Formed or deposited in an estuary.Adj. 1. estuarine - of or relating to or found in estuariesestuarial context some distance away. A discussion of containers and their role inboth transport and storage is lacking but will no doubt be included inthe on-going studies. A paper on chert chert:see flint. sourcing (Volterra et al.) is ofinterest but the work is still at a preliminary stage. Also relativelynew is the use of computer-assisted methods of reconstructingNeanderthal morphpology. Two papers on this demonstrate the potential ofthe techniques for extracting additional information from knownspecimens (de Leon et al. and Thompson & Illerhaus). A paper byTrinkaus on robusticity across the Neanderthal/modern human`transition' shows the subtle nature of morphological changes witha mosiac of differences across the skeleton relating to differentelements. The final paper addresses the suggestion of craniofacial craniofacial/cra¡¤nio¡¤fa¡¤cial/ (kra?ne-o-fa¡äsh'l) p ertaining to the cranium and the face. cra¡¤ni¡¤o¡¤fa¡¤cialadj.Of or involving both the cranium and the face. ontogeny ontogeny:see biogenetic law. OntogenyThe developmental history of an organism from its origin to maturity. It starts with fertilization and ends with the attainment of an adult state, usually expressed in terms of both maximal body , the differential rates of growth and development of the skullbetween Neanderthal and modern examples. The first paper in the Gibraltar volume examined environmentalchange (Davies et al.) and I review it last as it has implications farbeyond Gibraltar. The contrast between different stages of the lastglacial and the highly variable rates of those changes must be stressed.The subtle development of the unique environments that earlier humansexploited is clear and the challenge now is to draw the fullest pictureof this ecology. Only once this is done can the true nature of theinteractions between Neanderthals and modern humans be e ffectivelyunderstood geographically. The importance of Neanderthal/modern human studies lies in theessence of understanding the origins of ourselves. It is the one periodof history where we, as anthropologists, can study both ourselves andanother hominid in close juxtaposition. It is a testing ground for theapplicability of both method and theory and should challenge ourconsideration of who and what we are. It should require us to examinenot just the data but the underlying philosophies of what anthropologyis attempting, how and why. The question referred to but neversatisfactorily answered is what is `modern' behaviour? Kaufman refers to this often whilst the other volumes present aconsiderable amount of valuable new studies with less synthesis. All arereadable, valuable for the data presented and thought provoking. It is acliche that it is the victors that write history; what these volumescannot do is tell us whether, in this case, the losers could havewritten it! Refer ence BARTON, R.N.E., et al. 2001. Bridging the gap: new fieldwork innorthern Morocco, Antiquity 75: 489-90. Tim Reynolds, County Archaeology Office, ELH ELH English Literary HistoryELH North Eleuthera, Bahamas (Airport Code)ELH Entity Life History (database)ELH Early Life HistoryELH Epic Level Handbook (Dungeons and Dragons)1108 Castle Court,Shire Hall, Cambridge CB3 0AP, England.tim.reynolds@cambridgeshire.gov.uk

Teachscape XL, Professional Development Platform: Teachscape.

Teachscape XL, Professional Development Platform: Teachscape. TEACHSCAPE Teachscape XL, Professional Development Platform Internet InternetPublicly accessible computer network connecting many smaller networks from around the world. It grew out of a U.S. Defense Department program called ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network), established in 1969 with connections between computers at the , Starting at $1,500 Teachscape has merged two of its technologies: PDS (1) (Processor Direct Slot) A single expansion slot on certain, early Macintosh models that was used to connect high-speed peripherals as well as additional CPUs. Providing a channel directly to the CPU, the PDS coexisted with NuBus slots on some models. 2, the onlinecase study content database and search engine, and Online ProgramManager, the professional development content resource, to create thenew Teachscape XL. The result is an online professional developmentresource that combines every element of Teachscape's training,including text, videos and interactive applications, into a single,searchable library. The library allows teachers, instructional leadersor administrators to easily assemble items or create new resources,enabling professional training to be custom designed for a particulardistrict. www.teachscape.com Kurt Kurt is a given name. Its principal English variant is Curt, while others include Cord, Curd, and Kort. It originated as a short form of Curtis, Konrad (Conrad), and Kunibert. O. Dyrli is products editor(kdyrli@districtadministration.com)

Well worth consulting on consulting.

Well worth consulting on consulting. Is consulting for you? A primer for information professionals. ByUlla De Stricker. Chicago: American Library Association, 2008. 144 pp.US$40.00 (ALA members US$36.00) soft cover ISBN ISBNabbr.International Standard Book NumberISBNInternational Standard Book NumberISBNn abbr (= International Standard Book Number) → ISBN m13: 9780838909478. Libraries employ consultants for all sorts of reasons--managingprojects, benchmarking, problem solving problem solvingProcess involved in finding a solution to a problem. Many animals routinely solve problems of locomotion, food finding, and shelter through trial and error. , strategic planning Strategic planning is an organization's process of defining its strategy, or direction, and making decisions on allocating its resources to pursue this strategy, including it s capital and people. and forspecial expertise and objective advice. De Stricker makes the pointsthat 'information and knowledge management is the domain oflibrarians', and that librarians and information professionalspossess skills which are well-suited to consulting. She identifiesopportunities for librarians in consulting to libraries and library-likeentities (e.g. archives, museums), non-library knowledge-intensiveorganisations and information and publishing industries. This is a very practical book, drawing on the author'sexperience in the information industry and in running her ownconsultancy company. She writes in an entertaining way about whatconsulting is, the realities of life as a consultant, and the personalcharacteristics needed. For example, she addresses the perceptions(sometimes reality) of being a consultant, including 'I make adifference', 'My experience can benefit many','I'm in charge of my own schedule', 'I'm athome'. She also asks difficult questions t o help prospectiveconsultants determine whether consultancy is for them, such as: 'Doyou have patience and emotional detachment?' 'Could you workseveral months at a stretch without a day off if projects pile up?''Are you comfortable working alone?' 'Do you have theexperience and courage of conviction to put forward your ownrecommendations?' De Stricker also lists pitfalls, such asunpredictable income, uneven schedules, impact on family life,professional isolation, 'work is all around me', and givestips on how to deal with these issues. Practical examples illustrate heradvice on establishing your business, marketing, writing proposals,dealing with contracts, and fee-setting. The book is well structured, with tips and examples giventhroughout; there is a list of background reading (universally useful)on the career outlook for consultants, and a list of resources (mostlyNorth American North Americannamed after North America.North American blastomycosissee North American blasto mycosis.North American cattle ticksee boophilusannulatus. ) for small businesses. The index is excellent--clear,logical and comprehensive. I highly recommend this little book--it isvery readable, and it will interest those who hire consultants, thosewho work as consultants and those who think they might like to tryconsulting. Sherrey Quinn Libraries Alive! Pty Ltd PTY LTD Propriety Limited (company structure in Australia)

It's all your business: developing professional studio documents. (Professional Resources).

It's all your business: developing professional studio documents. (Professional Resources). What is the independent music studio? Educational facility? Artsorganization? Private business? Many would recognize their studios to beall three. Others might fear that treating a private studio as abusiness would take away from the artistic and nurturing nature of theirwork. As an increasing number of people work from the home--accountants,lawyers, writers--it is much more common for a private music studio tobe seen as a small business. One of the best ways to present one'sstudio as a business, or at least in a businesslike busi¡¤ness¡¤like?adj.1. Showing or having characteristics advantageous to or of use in business; methodical and systematic.2. Purposeful; earnest.3. fashion, is todevelop written materials for the studio. Such materials save time an denergy, contribute to organization, enhance studio and teacherrecognition and present the independent studio in a more professionallight.Studio Name and LogoRegardless of studio size, it is a good idea to give your studio aname before developing any written materials. A name should be chosencarefully, as you can use it on all studio documents. It also is helpfulto have a studio logo designed to include on all materials. In this dayof computers and technology it is easy for most teachers to designstudio materials or to ask a friend for help. If you don't have acomputer, a graphic arts graphic arts:see aquatint; drawing; drypoint; engraving; etching; illustration; linoleum block printing; lithography; mezzotint; niello; pastel; poster; silk-screen printing; silhouette; silverpoint; sketch; stencil; woodcut and wood engraving. specialist can assist you with designing andproducing your studio logo and ensuring that all your studio materialshave a similar font fontor typeface or type familyAssortment or set of type (alphanumeric characters used for printing), all of one coherent style. Before the advent of computers, fonts were expressed in cast metal that was used as a template for printing. , color, format and so forth.Studio BrochuresThe studio brochure is a promotional tool to help highlight you andyour studio. What is special about your approach to music? What isspecial about you? What do you want your students and their parents toknow about you? A brochure can be as simple as an 8 1/2" by11" piece of paper folded in thirds (see diagram at right). Someitems to consider when highlighting your studio are:* Private Music Lessons* Music Theory* Technique* Music History* Performance Classes* Recitals* Music Computer Lab* Listening Work Station* Ensemble Playing* Sight Reading* Ear Training* Group Lessons* Jazz Improvisation This article or section may contain original research or unverified claims.Please help Wikipedia by adding references. See the for details.This article has been tagged since September 2007.There are many different ways to go about describing Jazz improvisation. * Composition* Music LibraryA brief biography also may be included, listing your educationalbackground, number of years teaching, professional affiliations andpositions, and any awards or honors you or your students have received.One panel can contain a brief summary of your teaching philosophy.Pictures of you and your students can add interest.Once completed, this brochure may be Mailed to present and futurestudents and left at libraries and schools. It will say a great dealabout you as a teacher and can be updated annually.Business CardA business card needs to include all your important contactinformation: your name, studio name, address, phone number and emailaddress See Internet address. . You may want to include a short phrase about your studio orwhat you do, but it is best to keep it simple. Business cards need to bevisually appealing, without excessive information. Before I startedusing business cards, I didn't know just how handy they can be inprofessional settings and with prospective students.Stationery The term for boilerplate in the Eudora mail client, starting with Version 3.0. Stationery files are stored on disk and brought into new messages or added to replies. See boilerplate. Like a studio brochure and business card, stationery can bedesigned and stored on your computer. You can then use the design as atemplate, rather than needing to purchase expensive personalized per¡¤son¡¤al¡¤ize?tr.v. per¡¤son¡¤al¡¤ized, per¡¤son¡¤al¡¤iz¡¤ing, per¡¤son¡¤al¡¤iz¡¤es1. To take (a general remark or characterization) in a personal manner.2. To attribute human or personal qualities to; personify. stationery. The stationery will give your studio a more professionalappearance and can be used for all correspondence with students, parentsand colleagues.Studio CalendarEach year, a studio calendar can be devised, li sting when lessonsbegin, holidays or nonlesson days throughout the year, and dates forperformance classes, theory classes, festivals, competitions andrecitals. Mailing each student such a calendar at the beginning of theyear saves a great deal of time, since upcoming dates do not needadditional mailings or phone calls. Families also appreciate being ableto plan in advance for music commitments.Registration FormBefore you accept a student into your studio, it is helpful to havean adult complete a registration form. This will provide you withimportant information that will be needed in the future and will enableyou to maintain accurate student records. Possible items to include onyour registration form are:* Student's name* Birth date, if student is younger than 18* Address* Parents' or guardians' names* Daytime and evening phone numbers* Any personal circumstances of which the instructor should beaware (learning disability, health concerns)* Length of lesson preferred (with c ost of each listed)* Amount needed for book and fee deposit* A list of available lesson times* Day and time student prefers lessons--first, second and thirdchoices taken from list of available times* A place to check if student wishes to be on a lesson swap list* A place to sign giving consent for student's photo to beused for publicity purposes* A brief statement about make-up policy* A place to sign and date stating that the parent or guardian hasread and agrees to all the terms in the registration formOther FormsIf you believe studio records are hard to keep or studentinformation is difficult to finch finch,common name for members of the Fringillidae, the largest family of birds (including over half the known species), found in most parts of the world except Australia. you can devise a form based on yourneeds. Some additional forms that might suit your studio are:* Scholarship form* Lending library lend¡¤ing libraryn.A library from which books may be borrowed or rented fo r a minimal fee. Also called circulating library.Noun 1. record* Lesson inquiry/phone call form* Practice agreement* Practice record* Scale/technique chart* Student repertoire list* Music inventoryPolicy SheetProbably the most important document for any well-run studio is thepolicy sheet. Your studio policy statement lists every item that isimportant to your effectiveness as a teacher. You should present yourpolicies in a professional looking document, not in a "chatty chat¡¤ty?adj. chat¡¤ti¡¤er, chat¡¤ti¡¤est1. Inclined to chat; friendly and talkative.2. Full of or in the style of light informal talk: a chatty letter. "letter. The studio policy not only benefits you, but it is also of valueto parents and students, who appreciate the clarity of a formaldocument. There is nothing too big or too small to include. Somepossibilities are:* Tuition (amount and method of payment: monthly, semester se¡¤mes¡¤ter?n.One of two divisions of 15 to 18 weeks each of an academic year.[Ge rman, from Latin (cursus) s and soforth)* Book and fee deposit (amount and purpose: books, festival fees,recital Recital - dBASE-like language and DBMS from Recital Corporation. Versions include Vax VMS. fees, late payment fees, accompanist fees and so forth)* Make-up policy (what is and is not covered not coveredHealth care adjective Referring to a procedure, test or other health service to which a policy holder or insurance beneficiary is not entitled under the terms of the policy or payment system–eg, Medicare. Cf Covered. )* Swap-list information (explanation of how a swap-list functions)* Information about recitals and performances* Practice expectations* Group lessons* Theory classes* Computer lab* Parental involvement* Parking expectations* Correct time for calls to studio* Promptness in drop-off and pick-up* Short nails* Clean hands freedom from guilt, esp. from the guilt of dishonesty in money matters, or of bribe taking.See also: Hand * Purchase of metronome metronome(mĕ`trənōm'), in music, originally pyramid-shaped clockwork mechanism to indicate the exact tempo in which a work is to be performed. It has a double pendulum whose pace can be altered by sliding the upper weight up or down. * Well-maintained instrumentAnything that has presented a problem in the past can be addressedin the policy statement. If the sound of gum chewing chewingor masticationUp-and-down and side-to-side movements of the lower jaw, using the teeth to grind food for easier swallowing. During chewing, the tongue shapes food into a lump and saliva lubricates it for swallowing. in the lesson istorture, a sentence, "No gum chewing is allowed duringlessons," can be included. If collecting payments has become aproblem, include a statement such as, "A late-payment fee of $15will be deducted de¡¤duct?v. de¡¤duct¡¤ed, de¡¤duct¡¤ing, de¡¤ductsv.tr.1. To take away (a quantity) from another; subtract.2. To derive by deduction; deduce.v.intr. from t he book and fee deposit for all tuition notreceived by the tenth of the month." If students are abusing yourgood will by wanting make-up lessons for any and all reasons, include afirmly worded and clear statement, "Make-up lessons will not begiven for lessons missed by the student." If you are notcomfortable with a "no make-ups" policy, find the firmestpolicy you are comfortable with, state it in your policy and then stickwith it.We all have heard the phrase, "No one can take advantage ofyou without your consent." The policy document is where you dearlystate policies that help parents understand your expectations, whileallowing you to deal with any frustrations that may have troubled you inthe past. The final result of a professional studio policy is more timefor music making and less time for problems.Be sure to have a place at the bottom for an adult to sign statinghis or her agreement to all of the terms in your policy statement beforelessons are even started. If the adul t does not agree with yourpolicies, it is probably better for the student to study elsewhere.A new policy document can be mailed to all students and signed byan adult each year. A sample statement at the bottom of the page mightbe:I have read the XYZ XYZ?interj. InformalUsed to indicate to someone that the zipper of his or her pants is open.[ex(amine) y(our) z(ipper).] Studio Policy for 2002-2003 in its entirety,and I understand and agree to its conditions.(Signature of Parent, Guardian or Adult Student)(Date)Written studio materials help a studio to run efficiently. Teacher,parents and students all benefit from improved organization and clarityof expectations. Studio documents help present our profession in a newlight, a light that is chosen not by an outdated image of the musicstudio, but rather by today's independent music professional.Sample Brochure (Fold under) (Back) (Cover--Fold over back flap)Use this page and the three Put return address panels on the inside for: sideways and in the Studio Name corner, to use Biographical Information for mailing Studio Logo Student Achievements Your Name Studio Highlights Picture Teaching Philosophy Studio Address Pictures of you and your Phone students E-mail Address--Beth Gigante Klingenstein, NCTM NCTM National Council of Teachers of MathematicsNCTM Nationally Certified Teacher of MusicNCTM North Carolina Transportation MuseumNCTM National Capital Trolley MuseumNCTM Nationally Certified in Therapeutic Massage Valley City, North Dakota Valley City is a city in Barnes County, North Dakota in the United States. It is the county seat of Barnes CountyG R6. The population was 6,826 at the 2000 census. Valley City was founded in 1874. Bethhas been an independent music teacher for twenty-eight years and is onthe faculty of Valley City State University (VCSU VCSU Valley City State University (Valley City, ND, USA)) in North Dakota North Dakota,state in the N central United States. It is bordered by Minnesota, across the Red River of the North (E), South Dakota (S), Montana (W), and the Canadian provinces of Saskatchewan and Manitoba (N). ,where she also is the director of the VCSU Community School of the Arts School of the Arts is the name of several schools (usually high schools) that are devoted to the fine arts, including: Brooklyn High School of the Arts, Brooklyn, New York Charleston County School of the Arts, Charleston, South Carolina .

Girls' experiences in learning school mathematics.

Girls' experiences in learning school mathematics. During the past few decades, gender issues in mathematics educationemerged as a controversial topic. Researchers found that femalestudents, at both elementary and secondary levels, perform less wellthan their male counterparts on standardized tests A standardized test is a test administered and scored in a standard manner. The tests are designed in such a way that the "questions, conditions for administering, scoring procedures, and interpretations are consistent" [1] (Ansell & Doerr,2000; Beaton et. al., 1996). In other studies, female students, comparedto their male counterparts, exhibited lower self-confidence inapproaching mathematics and, as a result, were more likely to avoidtaking advanced math courses in high school (Eccles et. al, 1983; Meece,Wigfield, & Eccles, 1990). Researcher s have argued that femalestudents' lower self-confidence and lack of motivation in schoolmathematics constitute a complex phenomenon in which varioussociocultural so¡¤ci¡¤o¡¤cul¡¤tur¡¤al?adj.Of or involving both social and cultural factors.soci¡¤o¡¤cul forces are dynamically involved. For example, Reyes andStanic (1988) argued that different sociocultural factors influencefemale students' experiences with school mathematics, affectingtheir self-confidence in and motivation for pursuing advancedmathematical knowledge.Recent national reports and professional studies have underlinedthat early adolescence is the critical time for female students todevelop their motivation and academic identities (Bruner, 1996; Dick& Rallis, 1991; Marlow & Marlow, 1996; National ResearchCouncil, 1989; Sadker & Sadker, 1994). However, relatively fewstudies have explored the first-hand experiences of young adolescentgirls with school mathematics. Furthermore, the majority of previousstu dies on students' motivation have been based on individualpsychology that tends to separate students' consciousness from itssociocultural context (Pajares & Graham, 1999; Seegers &Boekaerts, 1996; Wigfield, 1994; Wigfield & Eccles, 1992). As aresult, as Atweh and his colleagues (1998) argued, it is hard to findstudies that seriously investigate the sociocultural context ofstudents' mathematical learning and their experiences with schoolmathematics. Similarly, the overall picture of girls' experienceswith school mathematics, as well as the dynamic and complex relationshipbetween their motivation and its sociocultural milieu mi¡¤lieun. pl. mi¡¤lieus or mi¡¤lieux1. The totality of one's surroundings; an environment.2. The social setting of a mental patient.milieu[Fr.] surroundings, environment. , has not beensufficiently explored.Therefore, it is important to investigate the everyday experiencesof young adolescent girls with school mathematics from a new perspecti vethat does not separate their motivation from its sociocultural context.Such studies will enrich educational researchers' understanding ofthe nature of students' motivation, including the complexities anddynamics of young adolescent girls' thoughts and attitudes towardsschool mathematics, in relation to various sociocultural factorssurrounding them.The following cross-case study of four young adolescent girlsilluminates their experiences with school mathematics and the impact ofsociocultural context on their motivation. In particular, the researcherhas examined girls' motivation, based on an innovative concept fromBahktin's circle, "multiple voices and multiple selves."This new theoretical standpoint enables the researcher to exploreseveral significant aspects of girls' experiences with schoolmathematics and to deconstruct de¡¤con¡¤struct?tr.v. de¡¤con¡¤struct¡¤ed, de¡¤con¡¤struct¡¤ing, de¡¤con¡¤structs1. To break down into components; dismantle.2. their voices and selves in relation tovarious sociocultural forces that dynamically constitute aspects oftheir identity and motivation for learning school mathematics.Conceptual Framework For the concept in aesthetics and art criticism, see .A conceptual framework is used in research to outline possible courses of action or to present a preferred approach to a system analysis project. This study is based on two different but interrelated in¡¤ter¡¤re¡¤late?tr. & intr.v. in¡¤ter¡¤re¡¤lat¡¤ed, in¡¤ter¡¤re¡¤lat¡¤ing, in¡¤ter¡¤re¡¤latesTo place in or come into mutual relationship.in theoreticalframeworks: Feminist theory Feminist theory is the extension of feminism into theoretical, or philosophical, ground. It encompasses work done in a broad variety of disciplines, prominently including the approaches to women's roles and lives and feminist politics in anthropology and sociology, economics, and sociocultural approaches to the mind aselaborated by Bakhtin's circle. These two different streams ofthe ory have significantly contributed to our understanding of genderissues in mathematics education during the last few decades.Feminist TheoriesFeminism feminism,movement for the political, social, and educational equality of women with men; the movement has occurred mainly in Europe and the United States. It has its roots in the humanism of the 18th cent. and in the Industrial Revolution. is "both a theory of women's position in societyand a political statement focused on gaining equal rights andopportunities for women and changing existing power relations betweenmen and women" (DeMarrais & LeCompte, 1998, p. 35). In the areaof education, feminists concentrate on how school curriculum andpractices contribute to maintaining the unequal distribution of powerbetween men and women.Fundamentally based on a feminist perspective, gender studies inmathematics education emerged from an awareness of the mathematicsachievement gap between male and female students, which often preven tedwomen from advancing to more professional occupations and, as a result,from accessing power in a patriarchal pa¡¤tri¡¤ar¡¤chal?adj.1. Of, relating to, or characteristic of a patriarch.2. Of or relating to a patriarchy: a patriarchal social system.3. society. One of the most importantcontributions made by feminist scholars concerns women's uniqueapproaches to self-development and academic leaming (Belenky, Clinchy,Goldberger, & Tarule, 1986; Brown & Gilligan, 1992). Belenky andher colleagues (1986) argue that women's method of learning can bequalitatively different from that of men. Women, as the authors explain,tend to develop and value a connected mode of learning, while men aremore likely to pursue a separated mode based upon a Cartesian view ofthe world and individuals. More interestingly, in their book, Belenkyand her colleagues present the concept of voice as a critical aspect ofone's identity formation. To them, voice is not mere vocal soundthrough which w e communicate with each other. Instead, having orspeaking one's own voice holds inexorable existential ex¡¤is¡¤ten¡¤tial?adj.1. Of, relating to, or dealing with existence.2. Based on experience; empirical.3. Of or as conceived by existentialism or existentialists: andepistemological e¡¤pis¡¤te¡¤mol¡¤o¡¤gy?n.The branch of philosophy that studies the nature of knowledge, its presuppositions and foundations, and its extent and validity.[Greek epist meaning: Voice is conceived as the process ofconstructing self, personality, and identity, as well as one's wayof knowing.However, previous research also suggested that for many women andgirls, keeping and speaking their own voices is not an easy endeavor.Brown and Gilligan (1992) revealed that young adolescent girls graduallysilence their voices as they move through adolescence. Brown andGilligan explain that young adolescent girls begin to suppress their ownindividual voices as they learn, through experience, that expressingthe ir real thoughts and feelings can damage their relationships withothers. They understand, at least intuitively, the "good littlegirl" image prevalent in our society. In their efforts to conformand fit in--by pleasing others--they silence themselves.The phenomenon of "losing one's own voice" amongadolescent girls also appears in many other studies, showing their innerconflicts and the distorted development of their academic and personalidentities in a male-dominated society (Rogers, 1993). Harter, Waters,and Whitesell (1997) theorize the¡¤o¡¤rize?v. the¡¤o¡¤rized, the¡¤o¡¤riz¡¤ing, the¡¤o¡¤riz¡¤esv.intr.To formulate theories or a theory; speculate.v.tr.To propose a theory about. that young adolescent girls' loss oftheir own voices in a school setting reflects their falseself-manifestation. The researchers argue that girls, as they becomemore aware of social expectations and pressures, gradually develop andmanifest false self-identities by silencing themselves.Sociocultural Ap proaches to MindSociocultural approaches to the mind are derived from the work ofVygotsky and Bakhtin's circle, focusing on cultural psychology thatstresses the primary role of communication and social life in ourconstruction of meaning and cognition cognitionAct or process of knowing. Cognition includes every mental process that may be described as an experience of knowing (including perceiving, recognizing, conceiving, and reasoning), as distinguished from an experience of feeling or of willing. itself (Wertsch, 1991).Sociocultural approaches to the mind begin with the assumption that"action is mediated me¡¤di¡¤ate?v. me¡¤di¡¤at¡¤ed, me¡¤di¡¤at¡¤ing, me¡¤di¡¤atesv.tr.1. To resolve or settle (differences) by working with all the conflicting parties: and that it cannot be separated from the milieuin which it is carried out" (Wertsch, 1991, p. 18). Theseapproaches emphasize the importance of the sociocultural, as well as thehistorical, environment in the formation of an ind ividual's mind.They argue that the origins of human consciousness can be found not in aseparated individual entity, but in the external processes of its sociallife, in the social and historical aspects of human existence.Bakhtin's entire work, including the conception of self, isbased on criticism of the individualism individualismPolitical and social philosophy that emphasizes individual freedom. Modern individualism emerged in Britain with the ideas of Adam Smith and Jeremy Bentham, and the concept was described by Alexis de Tocqueville as fundamental to the American temper. and dualism dualism,any philosophical system that seeks to explain all phenomena in terms of two distinct and irreducible principles. It is opposed to monism and pluralism. In Plato's philosophy there is an ultimate dualism of being and becoming, of ideas and matter. that were prevalentin Western society during his era. He argues that human consciousness isnot a self-sufficient and pre-constituted enti ty, but is formed throughthe dialogic di¡¤a¡¤log¡¤ic? also di¡¤a¡¤log¡¤i¡¤caladj.Of, relating to, or written in dialogue.dia¡¤log struggle between contending voices and discourses."The entire gamut See color gamut. gamut - The gamut of a monitor is the set of colours it can display. There are some colours which can't be made up of a mixture of red, green and blue phosphor emissions and so can't be displayed by any monitor. of social and cultural phenomena, including'self-ness' is profoundly inter-subjective or dialogic innature" (Voloshinov, 1973, p. 34), even though it seems to happenonly within an individual's mind. Therefore, one's identityand motivation, as part of the "self-ness" phenomenon, areconstructed through the operation of dense and conflicting discourses,cultural and social practices, and institutional structures.One of the most important contributions made by Bakhtin and hiscolleagues is that their theory enables educational researchers torecognize the multipl e sociocultural layers embedded Inserted into. See embedded system. in one'sspeech: There are more than one voice and one identity in anindividual's spoken word. Bakhtin (1981) states: As a living, socio-ideological concrete thing, language, for the individual consciousness, lies on the borderline between oneself and the other. The word in language is half someone else's. It becomes 'one's own' only when the speaker populates it with his own intention, his own accent, when he appropriates the word, adapting it to his own semantic and expressive intention. Prior to this moment of appropriation, the word does not exist in a neutral and impersonal language, but rather it exists in other people's mouths, in other people's contexts, serving other people's intentions: it is from there that one must take the word, and make it one's own. And not all words for just everyone submit equally easily to this appropriation, to this seizure and transformation into private proper ty: Many words stubbornly resist, others remain alien, sound foreign in the mouth of the one who appropriates them and who now speaks them; they cannot be assimilated into his context and fall out of it; it is as if they put themselves in quotation marks against the will of the speaker. Language is not a neutral medium that passes freely and easily into the private property of the speaker's intentions; it is populated-- overpopulated--with the intentions of others. Expropriating it, forcing it to submit to one's own intentions and accents, is a difficult and complicated process. (p. 114)Acknowledging the sociocultural nature of language, the incessanttensions and dynamics among different intentions and powers deeplyembedded in it, Bakhtin believes that subordinate groups can generate adifferentiated incomplete set of knowledge, which is at least partiallyresistant to dominant discourses and ideologies. Influenced byBakhtin's idea of language as a discursive dis¡¤cur ¡¤sive?adj.1. Covering a wide field of subjects; rambling.2. Proceeding to a conclusion through reason rather than intuition. practice of social life,some feminist theorists and critical theorists See also Critical theory (Frankfurt School)A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y ZATheodor Adorno Giorgio Agamben Louis Althusser Michael W. have developed theconcept of "language (voice) of possibility" and"language (voice) of resistance" (Bauer & McKinstry, 1991,p.4; Giroux, 1991, p. 53). They view discursive practices throughlanguage as the method of dismantling dis¡¤man¡¤tle?tr.v. dis¡¤man¡¤tled, dis¡¤man¡¤tling, dis¡¤man¡¤tles1. a. To take apart; disassemble; tear down.b. the oppressive social reality inwhich people are situated.Unfortunately, few researchers have applied this new concept,"girls' voices of possibility and resistance," to theexploration of gender issues in mathematics education. However, it islikely to become an extremely valuable, highly pro mising perspectivefrom which to study gender issues in mathematics education, since itenables us to examine the complex and dynamic process of femalestudents' consciousness, including their motivation for mathematicslearning, within various sociocultural contexts. This perspective alsohelps researchers in their search for a way to ultimately help femalestudents break the repeating cycle of gender inequity in mathematicseducation. Most significantly, it emphasizes the voices of femalestudents. In doing so, it promises to open the only avenue--i.e.,reclaiming For the neopagan organization of this name, see Reclaiming (neopaganism). For the reclaiming of land, see land reclamation. To reclaim is to bring a word back to a more acceptable course. and practicing their own voices--to developing their new,empowered identities in the domain.Voice, Motivation, and Sociocultural ContextMotivational researchers, influenced by Bakhtin's theory, haveredefined the concept of motivation in a holistic way, acknowledging theconstant tension and confluence confluence/con¡¤flu¡¤ence/ (kon¡äfloo-ins)1. a running together; a meeting of streams.con¡äfluent2. in embryology, the flowing of cells, a component process of gastrulation. of intrapersonal in¡¤tra¡¤per¡¤son¡¤al?adj.Existing or occurring within the individual self or mind.intra¡¤per , interpersonal in¡¤ter¡¤per¡¤son¡¤al?adj.1. Of or relating to the interactions between individuals: interpersonal skills.2. , andcultural aspects of the individual's learning and motivation.Social constructivists also believe that language is at the heart of allof these socialization socialization/so¡¤cial¡¤iza¡¤tion/ (so?shal-i-za¡äshun) the process by which society integrates the individual and the individual learns to behave in socially acceptable ways. so¡¤cial¡¤i¡¤za¡¤tionn. and learning processes. As insiders in classroomculture, students' perspectives are crucial in providing keys tounderstanding these transactive motivat ional processes (Oldfather &Dahl dahl?n.1. See pigeon pea.2. or dal A thick creamy East Indian stew made with lentils or other legumes, onions, and various spices. , 1994; Oldfather & McLaughlin, 1993).Oldfather (1992) has proposed a redefinition Noun 1. redefinition - the act of giving a new definition; "words like `conservative' require periodic redefinition"; "she provided a redefinition of his duties"definition - a concise explanation of the meaning of a word or phrase or symbol of intrinsicmotivation for literacy learning called the Continuing Impulse to Learn(CIL (Common Intermediate Language) The ECMA version of the Microsoft Intermediate Language (MSIL). See CLI. 1. (project) CIL - Component Integration Laboratories.2. (language) CIL - Common Intermediate Language. ). Explicitly linked to learners' social construction ofmeaning, CIL, a form of motivation, originates in and is defined by thecognitive, affective affective/af¡¤fec¡¤tive/ (ah-fek¡ätiv) pertaini ng to affect. af¡¤fec¡¤tiveadj.1. Concerned with or arousing feelings or emotions; emotional.2. , and social processes that learners experience asthey engage in the construction of meaning. Oldfather explains threeaspects of CIL--classroom culture, interpersonal domain, andintrapersonal domain--and argues that the quality of student-teacherrelationships, students' perceptions of cognitive ownership oftheir own learning process, and generative gen¡¤er¡¤a¡¤tiveadj.1. Having the ability to originate, produce, or procreate.2. Of or relating to the production of offspring.generativepertaining to reproduction. literacy curriculum in classare all factors that support or fail to support students' CIL(Oldfather & Dahl, 1994). Other educational researchers lendcredence to Oldfather's argument. For example, Duckworth (1987)reported the importance of classroom environment to supportstudents' own intellectual pursuits. Wood, Bruner, and Ross'searlier study (1976) also emphasized t he importance of social supportfrom peer interaction in students' learning process, reinforcingthe arguments of Oldfather and Duckworth.Focusing on mathematics education, Erchick (1996) argues that inmathematics classrooms many students who feel unheard un¡¤heard?adj.1. Not heard: unheard pleas for help.2. Not given a hearing; not listened to: unheard objections.3. , who recognize adis-synchronicity between their voice and the dominant voices, find no"place" for themselves. She contends that many adolescentgirls may fail to develop a positive academic identity in mathematicsbecause the culture of these classrooms, which reflect mathematics as amale domain, discourages them from expressing their own voices, therebydepriving them of the means to develop their positive identity in thediscipline.Research QuestionsThis study centers around two primary research questions. First,what kinds of sociocultural factors or forces exert positive or negativeinfluences on young adolescent girls' motivation for learningschool mathematics? Furthermore, how do these sociocultural factors orforces contribute to or undermine young adolescent girls'motivation? Second, how do young adolescent girls react, respond to, orresist these sociocultural influences and develop their own identity inthe mathematics domain?MethodsThe following is a cross-case study based on in-depth interviewswith four young adolescent girls, attending fifth, sixth, and seventhgrades in their elementary or middle schools. As a research design, casestudy is often used to investigate complex social units consisting ofmultiple components that are potentially important in understanding aphenomenon. Merriam (1998) argues that, in case study design, theresearcher's main "interest is in process rather thanoutcomes, in context rather than a specific factor, in discovery ratherthan confirmation" (p. 19).Participant SelectionFour young adolescent girls, each attending a different elementaryor middle sch ool located around a medium-sized university town in theSoutheast, participated in this study. In selecting the participants,consideration was given to their status in five sociocultural factors:age, ethnicity ethnicityVox populi Racial status–ie, African American, Asian, Caucasian, Hispanic , socioeconomic so¡¤ci¡¤o¡¤ec¡¤o¡¤nom¡¤ic?adj.Of or involving both social and economic factors.socioeconomicAdjectiveof or involving economic and social factorsAdj. 1. background of the family, schoolenvironment, and level of mathematics performance. The four participantsincluded one Asian-American girl in fifth grade, one Caucasian girl andone African-American girl in sixth grade, and one Hispanic girl inseventh grade. Their mathematics achievement levels varied, ranging fromenrollment in an advanced mathematics class for gifted students throughplacement in a Title I mathematics class. Their family backgrounds andschool environments varied widely as well. Therefore, the type ofpar ticipant selection for this study can be categorized cat¡¤e¡¤go¡¤rize?tr.v. cat¡¤e¡¤go¡¤rized, cat¡¤e¡¤go¡¤riz¡¤ing, cat¡¤e¡¤go¡¤riz¡¤esTo put into a category or categories; classify.cat as either apurposeful pur¡¤pose¡¤ful?adj.1. Having a purpose; intentional: a purposeful musician.2. Having or manifesting purpose; determined: entered the room with a purposeful look. sampling (Patton, 1990) or a criteria-based sampling(LeCompte, Preislee, & Tesch, 1993).Data Collection MethodIn-depth interviews were conducted with each participant, with eachinterview based on a loosely organized interview protocol that allowsthe interviewer to modify open-ended questions A closed-ended question is a form of question, which normally can be answered with a simple "yes/no" dichotomous question, a specific simple piece of information, or a selection from multiple choices (multiple-choice question), if one excludes such non-answer responses as dodging a during the interviewprocess. Each in terview took at least one and a half hours and wasconducted by the researcher at the participant's home. Allinterviews were audio-taped and later transcribed. All of the studentsexcept one had been involved in a previous research project conducted bythe same researcher. For this reason, the researcher had alreadyestablished a good working relationship with three of the participantsand had maintained close attention to their family and schoolenvironments for an extended period of time. However, data analysis inthe present study focused primarily on their interview data.Data Analysis MethodThe data analysis of this study was based on the constantcomparative method frequently used in grounded theory studies (Glaser& Strauss, 1967). This method was used because this study proposedto illuminate il¡¤lu¡¤mi¡¤nate?v. il¡¤lu¡¤mi¡¤nat¡¤ed, il¡¤lu¡¤mi¡¤nat¡¤ing, il¡¤lu¡¤mi¡¤natesv.tr.1. To provide or brighten with light.2. To decorate or hang with lights.3. the commonality com¡¤m on¡¤al¡¤i¡¤ty?n. pl. com¡¤mon¡¤al¡¤i¡¤ties1. a. The possession, along with another or others, of a certain attribute or set of attributes: a political movement's commonality of purpose. and variation across four young adolescentgirls' experiences in learning school mathematics in order todevelop small theories pertaining per¡¤tain?intr.v. per¡¤tained, per¡¤tain¡¤ing, per¡¤tains1. To have reference; relate: evidence that pertains to the accident.2. to the participants. First, theresearcher read through interview transcripts and identified severalrepeating themes in the data. Based on these tentative themes, theresearcher developed categories with which the entire data set was thencoded. Categories and properties were compared and networked with eachother, generating small theories and themes pertaining either to aparticular participant or all four participants in the study. Throughoutthis process, the researcher actively sought out different points ofviews from colleagues t o ensure the quality of data analysis. Forexample, initial codes for data analysis and supporting excerpts wereshared with the researcher's colleagues on a regular basis. Also,the researcher shared the first draft of findings with colleagues andmade revisions incorporating their feedback.Portraits of Participants(Names of participants, school, and town are pseudonym pseudonym(s`dənĭm)[Gr.,=false name], name assumed, particularly by writers, to conceal identity. A writer's pseudonym is also referred to as a nom de plume (pen name). ). Seran, afifth-grade girl at Hartford elementary school elementary school:see school. , is an Asian American A¡¤sian A¡¤mer¡¤i¡¤canalso A¡¤sian-A¡¤mer¡¤i¡¤can ?n.A U.S. citizen or resident of Asian descent. See Usage Note at Amerasian.A ,born and brought up in another university town in the Midwest. Herfamily moved south to Springfield five years ago because both parentswere offered faculty positions at the University of Springfield. In Seran's family environment, education has always been the firstpriority. Though both parents expressed a strong interest in theirchildren's academic progress in school, Seran frequently referredto her father as the most important figure supporting her educationalachievement and her motivation in learning school mathematics.Nisha, an African-American sixth-grader at Warton Middle School,lives with her grandmother in a public housing project in Springfield.Even though Nisha has lived in Springfield, a university town, fortwelve years, she has no close relatives who attend the university orany other institutions of higher learning higher learningn.Education or academic accomplishment at the college or university level. . Since Nisha does not livewith her parents or have regular contact with either of them, the amountof parental support available to her is very limited. At present,Nisha's primary caregiver care¡¤giv¡¤ern.1. An individual, such as a physician, nurse, or social w orker, who assists in the identification, prevention, or treatment of an illness or disability.2. is her maternal grandmother, who is over65 years old and has very little formal education.The third participant, Kristin, is in seventh grade at SpringfieldMiddle School. Her father's family was originally from Peru, andher mother grew up in a traditional, lower middle-class, very religioussouthern family. Although Kristin looks like a Hispanic girl, most ofher friends in school and in church are Caucasian. Her father works fora private company; her mother is a secretary at the university. Kristinhas an older sister (a high-achieving student at the local high school)and a younger brother Wiki is aware of the following uses of "'Younger Brother": Younger Brother (music group) Younger Brother (Trinity House) - a title within the British organisation, Trinity House in second grade.Abby, the final participant, is a sixth-grade Caucasian girloriginally from a middle-class background . However, for several yearsher family has been experiencing financial difficulty. Her father hasundergone three back surgeries during the last five years, during whichtime he has been totally unable to work. Her mother, a nurse in a localhospital, is now working sixteen hours a day to support the family. Inelementary school, Abby was a good student. Now, however, she feelsreally insecure in¡¤se¡¤cureadj.1. Lacking emotional stability; not well-adjusted.2. Lacking self-confidence; plagued by anxiety.in about the possibility of achieving academic success.Though she still believes that she "has the brain," Abbysuffers constantly from intense anxiety in her mathematics classroom.Findings and DiscussionsThe overall data analysis generated five overarching o¡¤ver¡¤arch¡¤ing?adj.1. Forming an arch overhead or above: overarching branches.2. Extending over or throughout: "I am not sure whether the missing ingredient . . . themes:interrelationship in¡¤ter¡¤re¡¤late?tr. & intr .v. in¡¤ter¡¤re¡¤lat¡¤ed, in¡¤ter¡¤re¡¤lat¡¤ing, in¡¤ter¡¤re¡¤latesTo place in or come into mutual relationship.in among participation, motivation, and learning; theculture of school mathematics and its impact; gender issues; reproducingothers' voices; and resistance and establishing one's ownvoice.Interrelated Phenomena: Participation, Motivation, and LearningOverall data analysis revealed an interesting confluence amongparticipation, motivation, and learning in the participants'experiences with school mathematics. As the girls explicated theirexperiences with school mathematics, it became clear that their activeparticipation in learning activities could not be separated from theiractual mathematical learning. Students who have actively participated ina learning activity in their mathematics classroom strongly believe thatthey learned the course content and, at the same time, improved theirself-confidence and motivation. Their positive experience with previouslearning activ ities supports their motivation and leads to fullparticipation in the ensuing en¡¤sue?intr.v. en¡¤sued, en¡¤su¡¤ing, en¡¤sues1. To follow as a consequence or result. See Synonyms at follow.2. To take place subsequently. mathematical learning situation. This kindof intertwined relationship among students' participation,learning, and motivation is quite conspicuous in the data (Lave &Wenger, 1991). Equally significant, at the outset, motivation formastering mathematics appears to be a product of learning orenjoyable/fruitful participation in a mathematical activity rather thana cause for learning or participation. Later, this developed motivationleads the student to still more active participation that ultimatelygenerates a deeper level of learning. For example, Kristin recollectsthe time when she was a "really good math student," eagerlyparticipating in math activities and "learning everything."She recalls, "Then, I liked math because my teacher gave usactivities or gam es. I like it (activity-based mathematics lessons)because I learn math in that way (by active participation).... Welearned everything while we were actually playing with the stuff he gaveus." Seran also describes how social recognition plays a major rolein the development of her motivation. "I get excited because I knowI already knew it (math content) ... and everybody else asks me,'how do you know that all?' "Then, I have a big mouth ...That's why I like mathematics." Social construction of acompetent self-image, supported by her family and friends, has emergedas an important process in Seran's strong motivation to learnschool mathematics.The Culture of School Mathematics and Its ImpactData analysis has revealed that the traditional views ofmathematics knowledge and how it is taught are still prevalent in theparticipants' mathematics classes. To these four young adolescentgirls, school mathematics is perceived as a set of very abstract andstatic knowledge that has little me aning in "real life." Notonly is school mathematics as a whole decontextualized from theireveryday lives, but also each part of the subject is partitioned par¡¤ti¡¤tion?n.1. a. The act or process of dividing something into parts.b. The state of being so divided.2. a. offfrom the other parts, hardly creating a holistic, consistent picture ofmathematics as a discipline. Kristin describes her confusion when shewas forced to "just warm up" her brain working on meaninglessoperations: Sometimes, his morning warm-up activity doesn't even have to do with what we learn that day. Like we maybe have something to do with integers or learning about regular fractions or graphs. I think how these match up.As a result, the most important value or motivation for learningmathematics, to these girls, is more related to its instrumental orexchange values in their school lives such as "feeling good aboutmyself," "being in a smart class," or "getting intocollege" (Lave & Wenger, 1 991). Yet, to them, mathematicallearning often means involvement in boring and repetitive work, such as"adding, multiplying, and subtraction subtraction,fundamental operation of arithmetic; the inverse of addition. If a and b are real numbers (see number), then the number a−b is that number (called the difference) which when added to b (the subtractor) equals ," with more concern forthe speed at which such operations are performed than for thestudents' genuine understanding of the content (Boaler, 1997).The authoritative and competitive culture of the mathematicsclassroom was found to be the primary source of the pervasive anxiety orself-alienation among the participants. These girls confess confessv. in criminal law, to voluntarily state that one is guilty of a criminal offense. This admission may be made to a law enforcement officer or in court either prior to or upon arrest, or after the person is charged with a specific crime. theirendless anxiety and even anger t oward the mathematics class that seemsto undervalue or threaten their self-worth. The majority of participantsbelieve that their mathematics classroom is not a safe place to try outtheir voices. They are well aware of the labeling practice that isprevalent in the class, and they voluntarily decide to silencethemselves. Researcher: OK. You may have some reasons for not asking the teacher questions, right? Why? Abby: Because ... sometimes I get nervous because to me it seems like if you ask a teacher the question, it seems like you aren't paying attention or something. But then again I know that's not true because, I mean, I pay attention during math class. Researcher: Could you give me a kind of example? .... Abby: Like I said, she (her math teacher) keeps her anger in. But she does tend to get a little mad if you ask something when she just went over it. And she can tell that you weren't paying attention. Then she sort of gets a little bit ma d at you, but, um, because you should have been paying attention the first time. But then usually the people that ask questions are the people that were listening.It is not surprising that these young adolescent girls'motivation for learning school mathematics is significantly damaged whenthey intuitively grasp the inexorable tension between their desire to berespected as active learners and the repressive re¡¤pres¡¤siveadj.Causing or inclined to cause repression. characteristics ofinstructional culture in their mathematics classrooms. Kristin, whodescribes her mathematics class as "just another class you have togo in, sit, learn, and work," expanded on how she could motivatestudents if she were the mathematics teacher. Above all, she called forrespect--respect for students' own ways of learning--from teachers: Kristin: Uhm ... First, I have to go to them because, you know, or I look back at their stuff to see if there are more hands on people or if they (stud ents) are more likely to listen? And if my class is more hands-on, I will try games and activities and the stuff that they enjoy. Or, I might have a survey or something, saying, you know, what would you like? You like more hands-on stuff? Or, do you like me standing in the front of the room and preaching? So, and then if they like me standing up in the room and preaching then I will tell my lessons standing up in the room, but if they want me to do games and have fun in the class I will try to be using the stuff to do. Researcher: Then, you seem to believe that the teacher's way of teaching does matter to students' motivation. Kristin: Yeah. Actually I do. I think that if you have more what they like, it will be more fun for them and they will enjoy it more. While you were in front of the room and they want to have more hands-on stuff and do all that and they are hardly learning anything. But, saying, when you have hands on stuff they are learning a lot more than (when you) bring them test very driven stuff. When you are standing in the front of the room and that's not what they're, you know, that's not how they learn, then they will make low test grades, you know. You think you need to change something.However, these girls scarcely see the possibility of having theirown thoughts and voices respected and heard in their mathematicsclasses. Instead, they perceive mathematics as just "another classyou just have to sit through." Their helplessness and deep-seatedanger prevent them from achieving a genuine understanding ofmathematical knowledge.Power issues are another important factor that shape these youngadolescent girls' experiences with school mathematics. These girlssense the disparity dis¡¤par¡¤i¡¤ty?n. pl. dis¡¤par¡¤i¡¤ties1. The condition or fact of being unequal, as in age, rank, or degree; difference: "narrow the economic disparities among regions and industries"in power between their teachers and themselves. Theyunderstand that they are constantly evaluated and "monitored"in their schools (Foucault, 1975/1995) while being classified withdifferent labels that "keep some people up and others down."Abby projects a sense of helplessness in her response to theresearcher's question about her mathematics class next year.Clearly, she believes it is the "teacher's decision," not"ours." Researcher: Do you think you are going to be with the same students in the seventh grade mathematics class next year? Abby: It depends, because some of them might not make really good grades and might get placed in a lower class than me. Or I might be placed in a lower class than some of my friends. And there's really nothing we can do about it because that's the teacher's decision, not ours.Nisha and Kristin strive to preserve their self-worth through theirown interpretation of ability grouping ability groupingn.1. The practice of placing students with others with comparable skills or needs, as in classes or in groups within a class.2. See tracking. , saying "It's OK.Anyway, we're leaming everything that sixth-graders have tolearn," or "There's not much difference between my classand others." They are trying to close their eyes to what is goingon around them, even though they're already well aware of what ishappening to them.Gender in PlayIn these young adolescent girls' mathematics classrooms, malecharacters are dominant while girls are almost invisible. The majorityof participants' previous and current math teachers are males, andthe majority of excellent students in and out of their mathematicsclasses appear to be males as well. Even though girls do not believethat boys are better than girls in mathematics, they admit that malestudents are active people who are able to occupy the center of theirmathematics classroom, regardless of their level of understandingmathematical knowledge. For example, Kristin talks about her mathem aticsclass in which male students enjoy the privilege of teaching otherstudents, even though their way of teaching is not always effective forothers. In contrast, male students seem to exert a negative influence ongirls' self-confidence in learning school mathematics (Issacson,1990). Boys' voices are so aggressive and loud that they often,whether intentionally in¡¤ten¡¤tion¡¤al?adj.1. Done deliberately; intended: an intentional slight.See Synonyms at voluntary.2. Having to do with intention. or inadvertently, damage girls' fragileidentity in mathematics, especially girls who are vulnerable to outsideinfluences. Boys toss off negative remarks that reflect their arbitraryjudgment and belittling be¡¤lit¡¤tle?tr.v. be¡¤lit¡¤tled, be¡¤lit¡¤tling, be¡¤lit¡¤tles1. To represent or speak of as contemptibly small or unimportant; disparage: a person who belittled our efforts to do the job right. of girls' ability to learn mathematics.They say: "You're not good at this," and"You're n ot smart," or "You'll never dothat." Seran, a high-achieving girl in this study, confrontedrejection by peers who said, "You'll never be my friend."Less confident girls often respond helplessly: "Everybody sees menot being good at math" or "put six (a wrong answer) onpurpose" on a math test.Reproducing Others' VoicesNot surprisingly, when these young adolescent girls address powerissues in school, instead of using their own voices, they frequentlyrepeat the voices of authority, voices they have heard, learned, andinternalized. Speaking in others' voices often undermines theirfeeling of self-worth and causes deep self-alienation, as the thoughtsof Kristin and Abby demonstrate. Abby believes that "mean teachersare better teachers" because "they really push you" tolearn, even though she suffers greatly in the classroom of "a meanbut good mathematics teacher." Her ideal of having "a nice andgood teacher" exists only in her imagination; in her real world ofschool mathematics, she considers that situation an impossible dream.Although they do not like the criteria their teachers use, the girlsoften apply the same criteria to themselves causing a deeper level ofself-alienation. In such event, they feel hurt and uncomfortableacknowledging who they are, and tend not to see the potentials theypossess. Kristin, who criticizes her teacher's unfair treatment ofstudents based on their scores, laments, "You know, sometimes Ilook at my score (on a math test) I got, and think, gosh! How could Iget this? (a deep sigh)." Often, these young adolescent girlsappropriate the devices used by the teacher and apply them to theirpeers, producing a delicate and unequal power relationship amongthemselves. For example, to Seran, helping her friend with math meanspushing the friend to complete the same type of simple operations asquickly as possible by limiting the time allowed for those questions.She says, "I'll help my friend learn math ... so I'll askmy teacher if I can bo rrow her timer timer,n radiographic timing device that functions as an automatic exposure timer and a switch to control the current to the high-tension transformer and filament transformer. The face of the timer is calibrated in seconds and fractions of seconds. . I'll see if my friend canfinish all the questions in time." This acceptance of the need to"push" us so that we "get [y]our stuff done" emergedclearly from the data, reflecting these girls' previous experiencesand current understanding of school mathematics, which they see not as ajoyous joy¡¤ous?adj.Feeling or causing joy; joyful. See Synonyms at glad1.joyous¡¤ly adv. learning opportunity but rather as a bitter experience theysimply have to accept.Resistance and Creating One's Own VoiceOn a more positive note, however, these young adolescent girls arenot merely passive victims of the culture of their mathematics classesand their peers influences. Rather, they actively resist such outsideinfluences, constructing and expressing their own ideas regarding anideal mathematics class. Their resistance assumes various forms. Forexample, sometimes they develop their voices to assert their own ideasabout what constitutes an ideal relationship between students andteachers, as well as how mathematics should be taught. Kristinelaborates her idea about "a good way of teaching math.""First, I will go to them (students) to see if they like to learnwith hands on stuff or games, or want me to preach preach?v. preached, preach¡¤ing, preach¡¤esv.tr.1. To proclaim or put forth in a sermon: preached the gospel.2. in front ofthem." Some of the girls may insist that the teaching authorityhear their voices. Kristin rejects one of the commonly accepted schoolideologies that define her as lacking the ability to learn mathematics,and she expresses her own counter ideology: "If you teach math andyour students don't understand, you have to go back and think aboutthe ways you teach because there must be something wrong with your wayof teaching math."Abby defines an effective mathematics teacher as one who"understands a lot about people" and "helps kids a lottoo." A good mathematics teacher, as Abby remarks, is one whoobserves the ethic of caring, who is eager to offer her help to the mostvulnerable people in the class, and who refrains from judging studentsfor "not paying attention Noun 1. paying attention - paying particular notice (as to children or helpless people); "his attentiveness to her wishes"; "he spends without heed to the consequences"attentiveness, heed, regard ."These young girls also strive to become agents, not pawns Pawn(s) may refer to: Pawn (chess) Pawns (Polish: Pionki) - a town in Poland in Masovia Voivodeship in radomski county in Pawns commune , in theirown mathematical learning. To that end, they strive to create aclassroom situation in which they can feel themselves as activeparticipants capable of controlling the outcome of their own learning.Seran has succ essfully persuaded herself that her participation inlearning school mathematics is fundamentally her personal choice."I can do it because I did believe that I can do it." It isinteresting that Seran, a high-achieving girl who acknowledges theimportance of the student's agency in learning school mathematics,tries to help other girls listen to their inner voices as a way ofrecovering their own agency in their mathematics learning. Encouraging afriend who had lost her confidence in mathematics and was constantlyharassed by boys, Seran said, "Don't listen to what others sayto you ... They never know what you like or what you actually can....it's your feeling."Clearly, cooperative learning cooperative learningEducation theory A student-centered teaching strategy in which heterogeneous groups of students work to achieve a common academic goal–eg, completing a case study or a evaluating a QC problem. See Problem-based learning, Socratic method. , along with consistent mutual supportfor one another, emerged as a central element in the girls'experiences with school mathematics (Boaler, 1997; Fennema &Peterson, 1987; Leder, (1992). All four girls described the joy theyfelt when helping their friends with a math problem, and alsorecollected the moments when their peers offered them kind, life-savingassistance. It is not surprising that the participants, including Seran,the most confident participant, tended to sit close to their friends intheir mathematics classrooms. Some did so because they knew that theirfriends needed their help, while others depended on their friends to behelpers. To these girls, cooperation appears to be a naturalresponsibility to be accepted and acted upon rather than an option theycan choose or refuse. Working together, they elaborate user-friendlystrategies that help them learn, understand, or sometimes simply passtheir mathematics exams and classes. The girls' cooperation intheir mathematics classes is not limited to a cademic help; it alsoincludes emotional and social support for one another. For example, Abbyexplains how she and her friends helped each other cope with stress whenany of them received a bad grade: "When they make a bad grade theysort of show it to one of their friends and say, man, this is bad, but Ican make it up. Just so they're not building up all this anger intheir body and then take it out on somebody else.... I know one time Imade a really bad grade, and it was only like a 40 something on a test.It was a 49 on a test, and I felt really bad. I felt like, OK, maybe ifI show it to one of my best friends that I think will not tell anybodywhat I made. Maybe it'll just take off all the stress from my bodyand just sort of make it leave." Three out of four participantsperceived the mathematics classroom as an insecure place that implementsvarious labeling practices and threatens their self-worth and confidenceas learners. For this reason, they tend to act, through their inti matesocial network, as mutual caretakers of both their academic needs andtheir emotional well-being.Despite the repeated disheartening dis¡¤heart¡¤en?tr.v. dis¡¤heart¡¤ened, dis¡¤heart¡¤en¡¤ing, dis¡¤heart¡¤ensTo shake or destroy the courage or resolution of; dispirit. See Synonyms at discourage. experiences with the labelsattached to their classes and themselves, young adolescent girls showgreat resilience resilience (r·zilˑ·yens),n in dealing with the unfavorable social circumstancesthat surround them. Sometimes, these girls accept the competitive andauthoritative culture of their mathematics classes; at other times,however, they raise serious questions about themselves and the roles oftheir teachers. They want their voices heard and their existencesacknowledged in their mathematics classrooms. Ultimately, they challengeone of the most commonly accepted ideologies and practices embedded inteaching mathematics in our schools--ability-based streaming. The gi rlsprotest, "(T)hey (highly achieving students in math) are maybeolder or smarter or whatever. But if they can (succeed), I think we cando it too."ConclusionIn general, to the participating young adolescent girls, the worldof school mathematics is neither a comfortable nor a desirable place inwhich to reside. Various types of apparatus threaten these girls'feelings of self-worth, undermining their rights as individuals andtheir freedom to learn. One of these is a teaching authority whosepurported pur¡¤port¡¤ed?adj.Assumed to be such; supposed: the purported author of the story.pur¡¤ported¡¤ly adv. responsibility is to help students learn, but which rarelylistens to or respects the voices of the learners themselves. Equallyimportant, male figures dominate the center of the mathematicsclassroom, while young adolescent girls are marginalized, scattered ScatteredUsed for listed equity securities. Unconcentrated buy or sell interest. around the edges, saying nothing and feeling a lmost invisible. Althoughthese girls recognize their vulnerability in such classes, they searchconstantly, intuitively, for more effective and exciting ways to learnmathematics. They share the insight and wisdom that they have acquiredfrom their personal experiences with school mathematics to reinforce oneanother's learning and self-confidence. To counteract the manynegative voices they hear from outside, they strive to awaken oneanother's inner voices. Unfortunately, at times their ways ofhelping each other prove to be ineffective, even resulting in misguided mis¡¤guid¡¤ed?adj.Based or acting on error; misled: well-intentioned but misguided efforts; misguided do-gooders.mis¡¤guid practices that generate further self-alienation and increase the"othering process" among themselves (Popkewitz, 1999).Unfortunately, giving up and just "sifting through" theminimum number of required classes seems to be the easiest option forgirls who are losing their voices and confidence in their ability tolearn school mathematics. They do not want to fail, of course, but theunfavorable culture of their mathematics classes, including adeep-seated disrespect for each student's different ways oflearning and denial of their agency in their own learning process, failsthem. Situated in this kind of sociocultural context, these youngadolescent girls speak in multiple voices. Some essentially echo theideologies they have learned from their schools, parents, peers, andmany other sources. Others, however, clearly reflect their hopes andcritical consciousnesses that spring from their existential conditionsin school and in society at large. Their own words and voices resist theimpact of various school practices and ideologies that repudiate TO REPUDIATE. To repudiate a right is to express in a sufficient manner, a determination not to accept it, when it is offered. 2. He who repudiates a right cannot by that act transfer it to another. theiragency and aptitude for learning mat hematics. Both individually and insupport groups composed of friends, they struggle to reclaim their ownagency and self initiative in their learning processes and school lives.What they confront everyday, however, is a patriarchal schoolingsystem that functions with its own rules and processes and processes andrarely listens to the voices of some of the most vulnerable learners whoare deeply disturbed "Deeply Disturbed" is a CD single by the Israeli psychedelic trance duo Infected Mushroom, realeased in July 2003 on the label Absolute. by the system's rules and processes. Thereseems to be little hope for these unheard voices--unless we, aseducators, reconceptualize various school practices and become advocatesfor these ignored and undervalued UndervaluedA stock or other security that is trading below its true value.Notes:The difficulty is knowing what the "true" value actually is. Analysts will usually recommend an undervalued stock with a strong buy rating. students. If we can reinforce thesevulnerable young adolescent girls' motivation for learning schoolmathematics by critically examining many unquestioned practices in ourschools, as well as our roles within the system, these girls will beeager to say much more about their ways of learning mathematics.Inevitably, they will be much louder, much more assertive as¡¤ser¡¤tive?adj.Inclined to bold or confident assertion; aggressively self-assured.as¡¤sertive¡¤ly adv. , as theyreclaim their voices, rebuild their self-confidence, and reestablishagency in their own learning process. This attempt may lead to a"politicized mathematics class (Noddings, 1993, p. 156)," inwhich the learning and teaching of mathematics are deeply interwoven in¡¤ter¡¤weave?v. in¡¤ter¡¤wove , in¡¤ter¡¤wo¡¤ven , inter¡¤weav¡¤ing, inter¡¤weavesv.tr.1. To weave together.2. To blend together; intermix.v.intr. with the teacher's and students' political awareness of theirchoices and actions in their everyday classroom (Noddings , 1993). Ifthis does not occur, however, these girls will have little more to sayon the subject. As one of my participants, Nisha, observed, students"don't have much to talk ... about my mathematics class."They will be "just sitting through" mathematics classes untilthey end.REFERENCESAnsell, E., & Doerr, H. M. (2000). NAEP NAEP National Assessment of Educational ProgressNAEP National Association of Environmental ProfessionalsNAEP National Association of Educational ProgressNAEP National Agricultural Extension PolicyNAEP Native American Employment Program finding regardinggender: Achievement, affect, and instructional experiences. In E. A.Silver & P. A. 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